Tonto National Monument ⓘ

People have lived in Tonto Basin for thousands of years. Prehistoric peoples, Apaches, and European settlers have all called it home. One of these groups, known by archeologists as the Salado, built the cliff dwellings you see today. A construction sequence of the Lower Cliff Dwelling gives details about how the rooms were built. The Lower Cliff Dwelling contains a few partially intact roofs. These are the original roofs. A roofed breezeway divides the dwelling in half, perhaps serving as a divider for two different family groups. Most of the rooms contained hearths, which suggests that a single family would have lived in each room. You can still see soot from their fires blackening the alcove above the dwelling. Archeologists have made a few modifications to the dwelling in order to facilitate visitation. A stone bench was installed against the boulder at the front of the cave, the floor was covered with sand to protect the prehistoric plaster floor, and a modern retaining wall was built at the front of the alcove. Even with these changes, the dwelling serves as a remarkable testament to the unique Salado architecture.

There are many reasons these people may have choosen to build their homes in caves.Perhaps they were protecting themselves from neighbors or were trying to get away from crowded conditions on the valley floor. Whatever the reason, construction on the 20-room Lower Cliff Dwelling and 40-room Upper Cliff Dwelling began about 1300 CE. To build the dwellings, rocks were easily gathered from the cave floor and surrounding hillsides to for the walls. Other materials, such as pine and juniper roof beams, had to be carried down from the surrounding mountains. The size of the Lower Cliff Dwelling was limited by the shape of the cave in which it was located, which is 40 feet high, 85 feet long, and 48 feet deep. Each family occupied one room, with a fire pit in the floor and a hatchway to access the second story and roof. Ceilings and walls still bear smoke stains made by cooking fires. Two rooms that contain original architecture have been gated off.

Room 14 is the only complete room in Tonto National Monument. The walls were built of stone and mud. There is a central vertical post supporting a main horizontal roof beam. Smaller roof poles were laid across the main beam connected to the wall. A layer of saguaro ribs and a few inches of clay mortar on top completed the roof. An opening used to reach the roof above is also visible.

Room 15 contains parts of the original clay floor and a fire pit. The people living here cleared the room of cave debris, leveled the floor with dirt, and covered it with clay. When dry, this floor provided a smooth, flat surface for sleeping, food preparation, and storage of household items. Similar floors were used throughout the cliff dwelling but have worn away or been destroyed. The reasons why the Salado left Tonto Basin may never be known. Drought, disease, and warfare may have led to their departure in the early to mid- 1400s. Long before Europeans arrived in the New World, the cliff dwellings were left to the wind and sun. By the early 1900's, the Basin was already a tourist destination for people traveling on the Southern Pacific Railroad. As the number of visitors increased, so did damage to the dwellings. Concern for this led to the creation of Tonto National Monument in 1907.

The Upper Cliff Dwelling is accessible only by guided tour with a reservation. Tours are offered November thru April, every Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday starting at 10:00 am. Arizona contains some of the nation's, and indeed the world's, greatest archeological sites. Nestled in a cave overlooking Tonto Basin is the 40-room Upper Cliff Dwelling. Many theories have been presented as to why people began building here. Protection from the elements is a possibility. The cave is dry even during the worst weather and receives morning sun in winter and cooling shade in summer. Or perhaps people were protecting themselves from their neighbors or were trying to get away from crowded conditions on the basin floor. A construction sequence of the Upper Cliff Dwelling gives details on how and in what order the rooms were built.

Construction of the Upper and Lower Cliff Dwellings began about 1300 CE and continued until the Basin was abandoned, between 1400 - 1450 CE. The size of the cave, 70 feet wide, 80 feet high, and 60 feet deep, allowed for living quarters, many with second story rooms. A large open work area contained a cistern, capable of holding approximately 100 gallons of water.

When you visit the Upper Cliff Dwelling, note the partially intact roofs, stone and slab door lentils, portholes, second story rooms, and third story parapet walls which served as balconies for outside living areas. Please take a few minutes to familiarize yourself with this site etiquette guide that will facilitate an enjoyable visit for you.

Small doorways helped control room temperatures. The Salado sealed off some doors and made others smaller over time. Large doorways would have allowed for construction beams to pass through, and may have been filled in after construction was done. Some doorways are shaped like a "T" or half-"T". These may have reduced drafts or helped someone balance while entering the room. It is still possible to see fingerprints of the ancient people in the masonry of these remarkable structures.

Rooms 17 and 19 are the largest rooms in the Upper Cliff Dwelling. These single story rooms stretch the length of the dwelling and are located in front of the large open area at the back of the cave. The use of these rooms is unknown, but because of their large size, they could have been used for large gatherings or ceremonies.

One of the last rooms completed in the Upper Cliff Dwelling, room 4, has the most complete roof, with approximately 2/3 of it intact. A juniper center post supports a juniper crossbeam, on top of which juniper and pinyon viga poles rest. Above these split sotol stalks and reeds form the bulk of the ceiling instead of saguaro ribs and other materials used in older construction. Was this an attempt to try something new, or is it evidence of over-utilization of resources?

These are the kinds of questions we can answer by studying the ancient architecture . It is important to preserve this evidence of the past, even though we may never know the full story of the people who called this place home.

Two 700 year old cliff dwellings tucked into natural caves high above the valley are protected by the National Park Service in Tonto Basin. Tonto Basin is located between the desert dwelling Ancient Sonoran Desert People, the Ancestral Puebloans and the Mogollon all of whom contributed to the development of Salado.

As hunters, gatherers, and farmers, the Salado took full advantage of the desert resources around them. They gathered desert plants, cultivated cotton, corn, beans, and squash with dry farming methods, and obtained water from an ancient spring which still runs. Their pottery spread widely throughout the southwest. They grew cotton and spun it for weaving intricate textiles such as blankets and clothing.

The two cliff dwellings are the best preserved architectural evidence of the Salado cultural phenomenon. The Salado had extensive trade networks across and throughout the southwest, the Pacific Coast, northern Mexico, and the Gulf of California. Their dwellings were part of a vast multi-cultural network from the Four Corners to Northern Mexico.

Archeologists are not sure why movement into the caves began. Perhaps it was for protection from weather or because the valley below was fully occupied. As with every aspect of their life, the builders took full advantage of the materials available in their environment.

Both cliff dwellings are built in natural caves. Other construction materials such as rock, sand, saguaro ribs, and water were nearby. Materials such as pine and juniper roof beams had to be carried from surrounding mountains.

The prehistoric builders used a mixture of stone and adobe to build the walls and wood elements to build door lintels and roofs.

The Lower Cliff Dwelling contains about 20 rooms and may have supported 40 to 60 people at its maximum habitation. The Upper Cliff Dwelling contains about 40 rooms, 32 on the ground level, and 8 to 10 second story rooms. It was occupied for more than 100 years but by 1425- 1450, many of the people in the Tonto Basin had moved to other areas.

For over 100 years, these ancient structures have been called the Tonto Cliff Dwellings. We don't know who named them, and there is no way of knowing when they were first seen by Europeans. Cowboys, settlers, and the calvary were aware of the cliff dwellings by the 1870's, and army personnel made note of them during this period. The diary of Angeline Mitchell provides an early description of the dwellings. Angeline came by wagon trail to Arizona in 1875. In 1880, she agreed to teach school in the remote and often hostile Tonto Basin. In her diary, she described her experiences with cattle stampedes, Apaches, and a trip to the cliff dwellings. In May of 1883 , Adolph Bandelier made his way to the cliff dwellings. His sketches of floor plans and documentation of the physical appearances of the cliff dwellings in his journal represents the condition assessment of the structures at that time. Published in 1892, Bandelier's Final Report of Investigations still serves as a historical reference for archeological sites around the American Southwest.

Four years after Bandelier's visit, population in the Arizona Territory began to increase rapidly. People were brought west first by wagon trains and trail rides then by the Southern Pacific Railroad which came to Phoenix in 1887. Business and industry followed. By 1900, Phoenix's population was 5,554.

With a growing population, farming, water, and flood control in the Southwest became an issue, thus setting in motion a series of events that would have dramatic effects on the cliff dwellings and their future.

Phoenix suffered through numerous catastrophic floods as the Salt River ripped and tore through ineffective earthen dams. Water storage, availability, and control had reached their limits. The Salt River Water Users was formed and, with other states and territorial delegations, lobbied Congress for action. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt signed the National Reclamation Act authorizing damming of western rivers; the Bureau of Reclamation was created and the Arizona Territory was selected for the first dam. By 1903, plans were in place to build Theodore Roosevelt Dam at the confluence of Tonto Creek and the Salt River. Located just four miles from the construction site, the cliff dwellings felt the impact. Workers, their families, and sightseers began exploring the cliff dwellings. Rare photos of this period show change in the dwelling's conditions through the early 20th century.

What was happening to the cliff dwellings was occurring across the American Southwest. Due to a growing concern over the destruction and looting of archeological sites, the American Antiquities Act was passed in 1906. This act authorized the president to establish monuments for places of natural and cultural significance. Areas such as Devil's Tower, Montezuma's Castle, Gila Cliff Dwellings, Chaco Canyon and many more were given protection under the Antiquities Act. The Roosevelt Dam project and associated completion of the Apache Trail made the Tonto cliff dwellings a popular attraction. As their popularity grew, sentiment and concern for their future had grown as well. On December 19, 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt signed Proclamation 787 , creating Tonto National Monument. Four hundred and eighty acres surrounding the Lower and Upper Cliff Dwellings were set aside and placed under the authority of the U.S. Forest Service.

Roosevelt Dam was completed in 1911; Arizona became a state in 1912. By then, the Southern Pacific Railroad had constructed a hotel near the dam and was offering tours. Tonto National Monument was one of the highlights on their Apache Trail Tour. In 1929, in cooperation with the US Forest Service, the Southern Pacific made a road to a large parking area at the mouth of Cholla Canyon, where the current picnic area is located. A pit toilet was dug, and a 1-mile trail was cut to the Lower Cliff Dwelling. Ray Stevens was hired as caretaker and was paid $30 a month to serve as the first maintenance person and tour guide. By 1932, Tonto National Monument had become a popular tourist destination. The Southern Pacific extended the dirt road to where the current parking lot is and built a stone caretaker's house. For the next three decades, this structure served as the Monument's Headquarters, Visitor Center, and Museum. Chain link fences were erected and locked at night to control access at the dwellings. Fences helped, but unknown numbers of people entering these unstable areas damaged the cliff dwellings. The Tonto Cliff Dwellings suffered more damage and loss in the 1920's and early 1930's than during the previous 600 years. By 1932, Phoenix's population had grown to 48,000. A growing road system allowed exploration of central Arizona by automobile and an estimated 100 people a month were climbing through the cliff dwellings.

The official history of Tonto National Monument dates from 1907, but the period of protection and preservation began in July 1933. On that date, Tonto National Monument was transferred from the Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, to the Department of Interior, National Park Service. Charlie Steen was the first National Park Ranger assigned to Tonto. During 1934, Steen was assigned to spend time at many newly established monuments. Rangers in this remote area lived in tent houses and drew water from the local spring. Flooding, scorpions, rattlesnakes, and hard work were part of the daily routine. As primitive as the conditions were, Steen and the rangers that followed persevered. The road was improved and a trail was cut from the parking lot to the cliff dwellings. Archeological and biological studies were initiated to better understand the cliff dwellings and the surrounding environment. A park ranger could now be present at the cliff dwellings to inform visitors of the Monument's archeological value and protect what remained of the fragile structures. Also in 1934, the Gila Pueblo Archeological Center took samples from the timbers in the dwellings for dating purposes. Dendrochronology, or tree ring dating, is a method of using growth rings on trees as a calendar in order to date archeological sites. The first indication of how many people were visiting came in September 1935 when Steen reported 305 people for the month. Read Steen's Monthly Reports. In 1937, President Franklin D. Roosevelt added 480 acres to the Monument. Eventually, nearly 70 archeological sites were discovered on the now 1120 acre preserve.

Establishing facilities, preparing trails, and stabilizing the cliff dwellings were routine activities conducted by rangers. In 1937, the Lower Cliff Dwelling was excavated and stabilized for the first time by William Duffen, a graduate student from the University of Arizona. In 1938, more than 5,000 visitors came to Tonto National Monument. Infrastructure was basic at the time and rangers made do with what they had or what they could borrow. By today's standards, ranger housing was little more than camping out. Charlie Steen returned in 1940 to stabilize the Upper Cliff Dwelling. Published in 1960, his "Excavations at the Tonto Cliff Dwellings" is the earliest detailed report of architecture and artifact observations at the cliff dwellings. After World War II, national and international visitation to national parks and monuments grew. Facilities were needed, and the first park ranger house was constructed in 1950. Visitation that year reached 17,700 and the need for modern facilities increased. The old parking lot, which accommodated 6 to 8 cars, was expanded in 1950 to help with growing traffic. Funds for excavating and stabilizing the Lower Cliff Dwelling were received and archeologist Lloyd Pierson undertook this work; evidence of this historic stabilization project is still visible today. Interpretive signs were installed along the Lower Cliff Dwelling and Cactus Patch trail. Thousands of visitors came to see the dwellings. In 1951, a concrete water tank was built in Cave Canyon to store water from the nearby spring. Water lines were laid to the visitor use area and down the canyon where ranger housing would soon be built. The days of rangers sleeping in tents and visitors using outhouses were over. By 1960, Phoenix's population was 438,000. Major highway projects in Arizona had opened up the country, with Route 66 bringing people west by the millions. Visitation at the cliff dwellings for 1960 was documented at 46,000.

In 1970, visitation at the park exceeded 53,000 people. Now, modern facilities awaited visitors which included displays on the archeological findings at Tonto National Monument. In 1974, the entrance road and Lower Cliff Dwelling trail were paved.

In 1985, archeologist Martyn Tagg completed the first systematic archeological survey of the entire monument. The object was to locate, record, and evaluate all archeological significant remains within the Monument boundaries and provide a full picture of its archeological resources for the first time. In 1998, the National Park Service's Vanishing Treasures program was established. The Vanishing Treasures program supports the preservation of traditionally-built architecture in the Western United States, facilitates the perpetuation of traditional skills, and promotes connections between culturally associated communities and their places of heritage. Tonto National Monument was among the first to secure Vanishing Treasures funds for personnel and projects.

Barely keeping pace with growing visitation, In 1956 the National Park Service devised a 10-year plan to upgrade facilities in numerous Park Service sites. In 1964, as part of Mission 66, a building which housed the Visitor Center, Museum, and administrative functions was constructed. The construction of the Visitor Center was completed in 1965. Mission 66 would transform Tonto National Monument into a 20th century preservation and educational facility. Construction of the new Visitor Center was a declaration that the cliff dwellings were now stable and could be enjoyed by all.

In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) into law and formally recognized historic preservation as an important policy of the United States. As a result, Tonto National Monument was automatically placed on the National Register of Historic Places. This register identifies and documents significant historical and cultural sites to facilitate their preservation.

On December 19, 2007, Tonto National Monument celebrated its 100th Anniversary. Throughout its history, Tonto has been profoundly affected by the national movements in reclamation, conservation, and preservation.To commemorate this history, the book At the Confluence of Change: A History of Tonto National Monument was written. Visitation in 2007 was documented at 56,174.

On August 25, 2016, the National Park Service celebrated its 100th Anniversary. Now begins a second century of stewardship of the nation's growing number of national parks, monuments, battlefields, historic sites, military parks, seashores, and more. Learn more about the Centennial. Thanks to the foresight of President Theodore Roosevelt and many others, these ancient reminders of the past are safe for many generations to come.

Tonto National Monument, established in 1907, protects several cliff dwelling sites and numerous smaller archeological sites scattered throughout the highlands and alluvial plains within the Tonto Basin, Arizona. The Lower Cliff Dwelling is one of two large sites accessible to the public, and is the primary site visited in the Monument throughout the year.

The Lower Cliff Dwelling consists of an approximately 20-room masonry and adobe pueblo built within a natural alcove above a side drainage of the Salt River called Cholla Canyon and overlooking Cave Canyon, where there is now an active spring. The site itself has been known since at least the late 1800s, and although established as a National Monument in 1907, was subject to excessive looting and associated damage long before coming under the protection of the National Park Service (NPS) in 1933. However, historic photographs, excavation and stabilization project records, and recent research provide some indication of when and how the Lower Cliff Dwelling was constructed, and to some extent, by whom.

Construction of all the cliff dwellings within the Monument appears to have begun ca. A.D. 1300-1325. Ceramic artifacts within the Lower Cliff Dwelling consist primarily of Gila Polychrome and associated wares, suggesting a broad range of occupation between A.D. 1300 and A.D. 1450. Additional dates for the Tonto cliff dwellings come from tree-ring dating, but the results of this avenue of research have been extremely limited, with only a single date produced for the Lower ruin: A.D. 1109vv. Dean (1995) describes this date as probably at least 150 years too early to represent the actual construction of the Lower Cliff Dwelling, indicating instead the use of old wood – perhaps driftwood from the Salt River below – by the prehistoric builders.

The prehistoric builders of the Lower Cliff Dwelling used a mixture of stone and adobe to build the village walls, and wood elements for door lintels and roofs. The cliff dwelling was not built all at once, however, and instead started with only one or two rooms, to which additional rooms were added over a period of perhaps 30 years. New rooms were built on bedrock, artificially leveled floors, and accumulated trash. While the rocks and adobe were readily available, the prehistoric builders if the Lower ruin would have had to travel some distance to acquire the wooden elements needed for door lintels, roof beams, and ceiling materials.

Tonto National Monument lies in the heart of “Salado” country. “Salado” is a term used to describe the prehistoric cultural group living in the Tonto Basin between A.D. 1250 and A.D. 1450, but also encompasses a particular group of artifacts, architectural styles, and a belief system symbolized by Salado iconography. Beginning in the mid-1200s, people began to migrate into the Tonto Basin from the Four Corners region and the San Juan Basin to the north, intermingling with the existing Tonto Basin population and with migrants from the adjacent Hohokam and Mogollon territories as well. The people who built the Lower Cliff Dwelling were therefore most likely a multicultural and potentially multiethnic group participating in the “Salado” way of life, sharing ideas, iconography, materials, and architecture.

To determine the construction sequence of the Lower Cliff Dwelling, archeologists examined the abutments and joints in the walls, entryways (both open and sealed) between rooms, and special features such as retrofitted roof beam sockets. Most of the Lower Cliff Dwelling rooms contained hearths, and were therefore likely residential, with each the home of a single household (estimated as between four and seven people). Although most of the construction sequence for the Lower Cliff Dwelling could be determined using the methods described above, two rooms (Room 13 and Room 17) do not abut another other rooms, and therefore cannot be placed in the sequence. Some researchers have argued that because the roof of Room 17 would have made it easier to access the alcove, this room must have been built early. However, ladders could have been used before the room was built, so it is just as likely that Room 17 was built later, perhaps when the village spread to the Southern Annex. This is also the case for Room 13, which could have been built at any time.

With the possible exceptions of rooms 13 and 17, the first room built within the Lower Cliff Dwelling was Room 15, which was followed by Room 14 and the wall for the adjacent Open Space 16. It is likely that a retaining wall where the current NPS wall now stands was also built during this construction stage. This initial stage of construction was accomplished by perhaps 8-14 people (two households), and maybe even less, as children may not have participated much in the actual building activities. When complete, the floor plan of the Lower Cliff Dwelling would have looked something like that shown in the figure above, and would have provided these two households with two enclosed rooms, rooftop activity areas accessible through a roof hatch in Room 14, the low-walled open area at the north end of the alcove, and all the open space surrounding.

The second stage of construction in the village involved the addition of a single household that built Room 6 against the east side of Room 15, changing the layout of the building only minimally. Access to Open Area 16 remained open to all households during this time, and a small entryway between this open area and Room 6 was likely the means by which the new household entered the room.

Shortly after the addition of Room 6, construction began on Room 7 and Room 8, blocking ground-floor access to Open Area 16 and changing the dynamics of the alcove space and household interactions. The entryway between the newly built Room 8 and Room 14 was also most likely sealed at this time, so it is likely the function of the preexisting spaces, with the exception of Room 17 and Room 13, also changed. Both new rooms had hearths and were therefore probably residential spaces. This does not necessarily mean that additional households had moved into the village, but instead that expanded family size or a shift in community organization required a reorganization of space. In any event, the front row of rooms certainly served as living space, and Room 15 may have continued as such as well. Room 14 and Lower Cliff Dwelling - Construction Sequence 3 southwestlearning.org its roof hatch, however, would have perhaps been more of a community space, as would have Open Area 16, if still in use, and the large activity area created by the combined rooftops of all the rooms.

Room 4 was then added to the village, which also resulted in the addition of Room 5 at the north end of the alcove. Like Open Area 16 and Room 6 to the west, Room 5 would have been accessible only from the rooftops, and it is unclear if this space served as residential space or a trash dump (the latter seems more likely). Room 3 was also added at this time, and given the presence of hearths in both this room and Room 4, these additions seem to represent more living space, and like-wise, more households. Nordby et al. (2012) estimate that at the end of this construction phase, between 4 and 7 households, or 16-49 people, lived in the Lower Cliff Dwelling.

The next construction stage involved adding three second-story rooms to the village: Room 35 above Room 7, and then Room 36 above Room 8, and Room 37 above Room 15. Room 36 opened onto the roof of Room 14 to the west, and had an additional upper story entry in the south wall that would have allowed ladder access. During construction, entryways linked the Room 14 roof with Room 37 and Room 37 with Room 35, but both of these were sealed when the rooms were completed, suggesting that access to both Room 35 and Room 37 required the use of either roof hatches in the rooms below or ladders from the adjoining single story rooms. The addition of these three rooms resulted in a substantial increase in residential space, which may have housed between 6 and 10 households, or 24-70 people. The rooftops of the second story rooms would have replaced those of the first story rooms as activity areas, and Open Area 16, although now accessible only by going across the roof of Room 6, would still have been a usable space.

After the completion of the second-story units in the main structure, the Lower Cliff Dwelling builders began construction in the southern portion of the alcove, erecting a two-story building with two rooms on each floor. This structure seems to have been built in lieu of a third story over Room 35, where wall modifications indicate that such a story was at least planned. The change may have been to accommodate new households, as with the completion of this building, the village could house an additional 2-4 households. The total population within the village at this time, therefore, could have included up to 14 households, or 56-98 people.

Once the southern roomblock was complete, Room 9 (a corridor) and Room 10 (a residential space) were added. The corridor allowed continued access to Room 8 and Room 14, in addition to the new room, which could have housed a single household. The roof above would have served as an activity area for those living below and in the roomblock to the east.

The residents of the Lower Cliff Dwelling added one additional room (Room 1, which was used for storage) before ceasing construction activities in the main alcove.

The last building episode in the Lower Cliff Dwelling involved adding the South Annex rooms (Room 18, Room 19, and Open Area 20) south of the main village. One, and probably two, of these rooms were likely living spaces, and given that the South Annex was a rather unfavorable position, this suggests that population pressure may have been a problem for local residents — if all the residential rooms in the village were in use at this time, as many as 17 households, or 68-119 people, may have lived in the Lower Cliff Dwelling when construction ceased.

Construction had stopped at all the major Salado sites within the Monument by the A.D. 1350s. Residents of the Lower Cliff Dwelling and their near neighbors and perhaps relatives at the Northern Annex, a site just north of the village but situated in a separate alcove, likely began leaving soon after, and like the other Salado inhabitants of the Tonto Basin, had moved on entirely by A.D. 1450.

Unless otherwise noted, the information included in this overview derived from the following report: Nordby, Larry V., James P. Holmlund, Thomas C. Windes, Duane C. Hubbard, and Christian E. Downum 2012 Cliff Dwellings of Tonto National Monument: The Lower Cliff Dwelling and the North and South Annexes . Northern Arizona University Archaeological Report 1281. Flagstaff. Also cited in this overview are the following sources: Dean, Jeffrey 1995 WALPI Project, letter to Gregory Fox, USDI National Park Service, Western Archeological and Conservation Center, from Laboratory for Tree-Ring Research, University of Arizona, Accession A-1207. On file with Tonto National Monument, National Park Service. Duffen, William H. 1937 Tonto Ruins Stabilization, May 27 to June 30, 1937. Southwestern Monuments Special Report No. 19. On file with Tonto National Monument, National Park Service. Pierson, Lloyd M. 1952 Archaeology of the Lower Ruin and Annex, Tonto National Monument, Arizona. On file with Tonto National Monument, National Park Service.

The Lower and Upper Cliff Dwellings were constructed with unworked local rock and adobe mortar. The Tonto cliff dwellings remain standing 700 years later becuase they are protected by a natural cave and starting in 1933, the National Park Service.

The masonry of the Lower and Upper Cliff Dwelling is of clay and local stone. Adobe was used for both mortar and plaster. The a lot of mortar was applied and the rocks were set in it with no special attempt at fine work. The entire wall was plastered over with a thick layer of mud. All water had to be hauled up the steep incline from the spring. The stone is unshaped quartzite, which occurs conveniently and in great quantity on the talus slope below the cliff dwellings. The adobe is creamy tan in color and full of small stones, which inhibited the making of very smooth plaster. The clay was probably obtained from the talus slope, as there are places where a fair supply of it can be secured with a slight amount of work in removing the larger rocks. Walls were laid in layers 18 to 24 inches high before plaster was applied. The first layer was rounded at the top so that the next layer would give a better bond. After the first layer was dry the next was laid, and so on. Horizontal lines which denote these units are clearly visible on the walls. These are called cold joints. No foundations were used; walls rested on either bedrock or loose fill. Because the rock faces are irregular, the walls lack stability, though they could reach considerable height. For example, the tallest wall standing in the Lower Cliff Dwelling is 15 feet 7 inches and rests on loose fill. Walls taper slightly from bottom to top and average 12 inches thick, with plaster averaging 2 inches thick. From the number of hand prints still visible, plastering was done by hand. Interior rooms have their plaster stained from smoke. In addition, the builders did not bond new walls to the old walls. This is ideal for an archeologist wishing to determine the building sequence but it causes structural weakness. Such weakness would not have affected the dwelling while it was occupied and the ceilings kept in good condition. Once the ceilings were gone the walls were more apt to fall apart.

Nearly all of the doors were originally built in a rectangular or square shape, and then altered to a half-T, or to a narrower rectangular opening. Door lintels were usually made of sycamore or juniper planks. Roofs were constructed with one main beam across one center axis of the room. This beam rested in the notched end of a vertical log buried in the floor. The ends of the main beam were buried in the walls or rested against the cave walls with plaster around it. Small poles of sycamore and juniper, at right angles to the main beam, ran the length of the room. In some cases, these poles were only long enough for one end to rest on the main beam and the other in the wall. On top of the poles, and at right angles to them, was a layer of wooden saguaro ribs. The ribs were then covered with clay. Occasionally, a layer of grass or reeds were laid over the saguaro ribs to help ensure no clay would fall into the room below. The floors were made of hard-packed adobe clay and flat bedrock to create a smooth surface. Bowl-shaped fire pits were found in most rooms.

The Lower Cliff Dwelling contains about 20 rooms and may have supported 40 to 60 people at maximum habitation. The Upper Cliff Dwelling contains about 40 rooms, 32 on the ground level, and about 8 to 10 second story rooms. It was occupied for more than 100 years but by 1425 - 1450, many of the people in the Tonto Basin had moved to other areas.

Tonto National Monument, established in 1907, protects several cliff dwelling sites and numerous smaller archeological sites scattered throughout the highlands and alluvial plains within the Tonto Basin, Arizona. The Upper Cliff Dwelling is the largest of these sites, and is accessible only via a ranger-guided hike from the Visitor Center with a reservation.

The Upper Cliff Dwelling consists of an approximately 40- room masonry and adobe pueblo built within a natural alcove above a side drainage of the Salt River called Cholla Canyon. Contained within the alcove is a small seep spring that was likely active (and therefore the primary draw) when the village was occupied.

Like many of the other prehistoric sites now protected by the National Park Service (NPS), the Upper Cliff Dwelling was subject to looting and vandalism that destroyed much of the contextual information for the site before archeological investigations could be conducted within the village. Historic photographs, old excavation reports, and recent research, however, provide some indication of when and how the Upper Cliff Dwelling was constructed, and to some extent, by whom.

Construction of all the cliff dwellings within the Monument appears to have begun ca. A.D. 1300-1325. Ceramic artifacts found within the Upper Cliff Dwelling consist primarily of Gila and Tonto polychromes, suggesting a broad range of occupation between A.D. 1300 and A.D. 1450. Additional dates for the cliff dwelling come from tree-ring dating, but the results of this avenue of research have been extremely limited, with only three dates produced so far. The first date produced was A.D. 1346 (Haury 1938) – this sample was later re-analyzed and produced a date of A.D. 1290vv (“vv” means that the exterior rings of the sample are missing, and therefore, that this date is earlier than the actual cutting and use of the tree).

A second date, produced only recently, came from a roof beam cut between the fall of A.D. 1342 and the spring of A.D. 1343 (Windes 2012). The final date, mistakenly ascribed to the Lower Cliff Dwelling, is a near-cutting date of A.D. 1303v (Windes 2012). Tree-ring dating, therefore, currently places the construction of the Upper Cliff Dwelling between sometime after A.D. 1290. The Upper Cliff Dwelling at Tonto National Monument, ca. 1939. and the spring of A.D. 1343. Given that the latter date came from a room built before the Upper Cliff Dwelling was completed, however, construction likely lasted later than A.D. 1343, and perhaps as late as A.D. 1350, when most people had begun to move out of the Tonto cliff dwellings.

The prehistoric builders of the Upper Cliff Dwelling used a mixture of stone and adobe to build the village walls and wood elements for door lintels and roofs. Wood elements included sycamore, cottonwood, birch, pinyon, juniper, Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, willow, and chokecherry. Saguaro cactus ribs, bark, yucca, and reeds were also used as roofing material, and while these materials could have been acquired locally, the higher-elevation tree species (ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, birch, and possibly the juniper, as well) would have required substantial travel or exchange (Windes 2012).

Three primary factors influenced the construction of the village: alcove morphology, social relationships, and maintenance of routes from east to west and north to south. In constructing the Upper Cliff Dwelling, the prehistoric builders made use of the natural topography of the alcove, leaving it open in the rear in the area surrounding the seep spring, and augmenting the natural ledges (of which there are five) to create foundations and walls for the village rooms. Once core rooms were complete, additional rooms were added on, so that in a period probably no longer than 30 years, the entire village had been built, lived in, and ultimately left.

Tonto National Monument lies in the heart of “Salado” country. “Salado” is a term used to describe the prehistoric cultural group living in the Tonto Basin between A.D. 1250 and A.D. 1450, but also encompasses a particular group of artifacts, architectural styles, and a belief system symbolized by Salado iconography. Beginning in the mid-1200s, people began to migrate into the Tonto Basin from the Four Corners region and the San Juan Basin to the north, intermingling with the existing Tonto Basin population and with migrants from the adjacent Hohokam and Mogollon territories as well. The people who built the Upper Cliff Dwelling were therefore most likely a multicultural and potentially multiethnic group participating in the “Salado” way of life, sharing ideas, iconography, materials, and architecture.

The Upper Cliff Dwelling also contains some architectural clues indicating “special” status. First, the alcove contains a spring that appears to have been an important feature overall. Second, the village had several very large rooms that may have served as communal space – perhaps as a gathering area for not only the residents of the cliff dwelling, but for others living elsewhere in the Tonto Basin. Finally, one of the rooms (Room 14) had a labyrinth pattern incised in the plaster inside the room – a similar pattern was found on a wall of the Great House at Casa Grande (which some suspect served as an astronomical observatory), some 50-60 miles to the southwest (Leland and Van Valkenburgh 1961).

To determine the construction sequence for the Upper Cliff Dwelling, archeologists examined the abutments and joints in the walls, entryways (both open and sealed) between rooms, and special features such as retrofitted roof beam sockets. Household units within the village appear to have consisted of a single residential room, its rooftop work area, and surrounding open space. As rooms were added to the village, the open spaces were replaced will additional rooftop work areas, which also served as corridors allowing access to various parts of the village, including the spring and large community space in the back of the alcove.

The oldest construction in the Upper Cliff Dwelling consists of a single short wall (in green) perhaps meant to mark the boundaries of the rear-alcove open space around the spring, a space that remained unaltered by later construction in the village. The first rooms built within the alcove were Room 7, Room 16, and Room 30. Because these rooms were separate rather than connected, each likely represents an individual household (estimated to be between four and seven people), so that the initial population in the village may have been in the range of 12 to 21 people.

The inhabitants of the village then added Room 2, Room 5, Room 4, and Room 19. Rooms 2, 4, and 5 represent the addition of perhaps two more households to the community. Room 19, which is very large, was more likely a communal space used for gatherings and/or storage.

During the next stage of construction activities, another large room (Room 17) was built on the ledge just outside the spring and associated open space, between Room 17 and Room 16. Entryways in both the east and west walls of this room allowed the room to act as an access corridor as well as serving as gathering space, a work area, and/or storage. A second story room (Room 37) was added above Room 16 at this time, as were two abutting two-story structures on the ledge below (rooms 34/14 and 35/9). With the addition of Room 34/14, the space between rooms 7 and 16 was closed off but left unroofed, which allowed it to serve as alight sink – an increasingly important feature as village expansion blocked the light from outside the alcove. A second story room (Room 40) was also built over Room 5 during this period, and the addition of a small room outside of Room 5 created another light sink in this area. The organization of these rooms appears to represent social reorganization if not additional households. With the closure of the corridor between Room 2 and Room 5, for example, access to Room 4 appears to have been limited to Room 2, with the Room 5 household expanding into the second story of that room. The lower story rooms 7, 9, and 14 formed another cluster, and the upper story rooms in the part of the village yet another. A single tree-ring date recently acquired for Room 40 (the upper-story room over Room 9) suggests the wood used to build this section of the village was cut between the fall of A.D. 1342 and the spring of A.D. 1343 (Windes 2012).

Only two rooms (13 and 27) were built during this stage. The rooms were first constructed as one large room and then subdivided with an interior wall. The rooftop area of the two rooms would have served as activity space and an entryway leading from the roof of Room 27 allowed continued access to Room 19 on the ledge above. Both Room 13 and Room 27 also served as a secondary core for later construction episodes.

The next building episode involved the addition of Room 10, Room 29, Room 22, and Room 26. Room 10 was built within the corridor between Room 13 and 9, but remained part of the access corridor to the spring and open area at the back of the alcove, with a light sink left between this room and Room 17 above. Likewise, entryways were left in Room 29 to allow access through this room to the interior corridors leading to the back and northern portions of the alcove. Like rooms 13 and 27 before, Room 22 and Room 26 were created by first building one big room and then subdividing this with an interior wall. If both sets of rooms represent individual households, the village population at the end of this construction stage may have been around nine households, or 36 to 63 people.

The Upper Cliff Dwelling village continued to grow during this stage, with the addition of rooms 20 and 21, a second-story room above Room 21 (Room 38), Room 28, and another second-story room over Room 29 (Room 39). Construction of the two-story Room 21/38 building likely sealed the southern entryway for Room 19 on the ledge above. It is unclear if the northern entryway to Room 19 remained open at this time – if not, Room 19 would have been sealed off entirely during this construction stage, as reported by V. Stoner when he first visited the site in 1920 (Steen 1943). The buildings added during this stage likely represent at least two more households, so that if all residential structures were in use at this time, perhaps 11 households, or 44 to 77 people, may have been in residence. Two “porches” were also added in front of Room 22 and Room 26 – these, along with the rooftops, likely served as work space for the households living in those rooms.

The final building episode in the Upper Cliff Dwelling resulted in the addition of rooms 23, 24, and 31. Room 23 may never have been roofed, serving instead as a light sink and corridor to reach the back of the alcove, but it seems likely that both Room 24 and Room 31 were residential spaces, the roofs of which would have provided elevated access to the interior of the village. One additional “room” at the northeastern edge of the village may have been under construction at this time (Steen 1943). This space, whether a room or work area, contains little evidence for a formal floor and even less for roofing material. The wood specimen originally reported by Haury (1938) as dating to A.D. 1346 was found lying in this space. Had this date been accurate for activities within this room, then the final four stages of village construction would have taken only a matter of years - perhaps as few as three or four. Although this interpretation may still be valid, re-analysis of the wood sample indicates only that the tree itself died sometime after A.D. 1290; this sample, therefore, can no longer be used to date the construction sequence of this section of the village.

The Upper Cliff Dwelling village likely had a population very similar to that of the Lower Cliff Dwelling in its final years of occupation, with perhaps as many as 15 households (60-105 people) living within the village in the late A.D. 1340s. The Upper village, however, with its two great rooms (17 and 19), appears to have been “special” in some way – perhaps as place for a much larger non-residential population to convene for social or ceremonial events. For whatever reason – perhaps related conflict, population pressure, and/or environmental stress – the Upper Cliff Dwelling residents ceased construction on the village and began to move out ca. the A.D. 1350s, and like the other Salado inhabitants of the Tonto Basin, had moved on entirely by A.D. 1450.

Unless otherwise noted, the information included in this overview derived from the following report: Nordby, Larry V. 2010 The Upper Tonto Cliff Dwelling Construction Sequence. Western Mapping Company Technical Report No. 2011-3. Tucson. Also cited in this overview are the following sources:

Abel, Leland J., and Sallie Van Valkenburgh 1961 The Tonto Labyrinth. Kiva 27(1):29-31. Haury, Emil. 1938 Southwestern Dated Ruins: II. Tree-ring Bulletin 4(3):3-4. Steen, Charlie R. 1943 Excavation of the Upper Ruin, Tonto National Monument. On file with Tonto National Monument, National Park Service. Windes, Thomas C. 2012 Cliff Dwellings of Tonto National Monument: The Lower Cliff Dwelling and the North and South Annexes, by L.V. Nordby, J.P. Holmlund, T.C. Windes, D.C. Hubbard, and C.E. Downum, pp. 192-248. Northern Arizona University Archaeological Report 1281. Flagstaff.

Angeline Mitchell, known as Angie, moved from the glamour and sophistication of Prescott, the territorial capitol of Arizona to the primitive, wild-west life of Tonto Basin. A well-educated and experienced school teacher, Angie applied to become the first teacher in the Basin. She did so to spite her fiancé, George Brown, who'd broken his promise not to run for political office, and then got himself elected to the 11th territorial legislature. On a rainy September 14, 1880, Angie, her mother, and George Brown set off for the Tonto Basin. They traveled 130 miles in a wagon drawn by a team of two horses, a trip that lasted a very rough six days. At one point, they were given false directions, which led them to a near impassable trail up the side of a steep canyon. Looking over the edge, they saw "the total wreck of what had been at some time a loaded freight wagon, the bones and hides of four horses, and parts of the harness." After spending a few days in the Basin with a local ranching family, Angie's mother and George left for the return trip to Prescott, leaving Angie to write in her diary that "Today for the first time in my life, I know what it is to feel utterly cast away and homesick..." Almost two weeks after leaving Prescott, Angie undertook the one day journey to her new home, located along Tonto Creek near what is now Roosevelt Dam. There she would live with another family, the Vineyards, until her own small house was able to be built of "mud and poles - or poles and mud as the case may be." After settling into her new role as schoolteacher, she took her students to the nearby cliff dwellings. She describes in her journal the magnificent structures she and her students explored, narrating the various materials and building styles, as well as artifacts they found along the way. Ahead of her time, Angie understood that the dwellings she visited were once home to people who were like her, but lived quite differently. Read Angie's account of her visit to the Tonto Cliff Dwellings. Her well-crafted words, detailed recollections, and love for the mystery of prehistoric dwellings and archeology provide vivid details of how pioneers viewed these prehistoric sites. Through A Frontier Teacher in Tonto Basin: The 1880 Diary of Angeline Mitchell , the pioneer school teacher and her writing serve as a valuable resource for educating the public about early pioneer history in the Tonto Basin area. Her life is an inspiration to all women.

State Historic Preservation Office, Arizona State Parks (602-542-4009) Welcome to the past! Arizona contains some of the nation’s -- and indeed the world’s -- greatest archeological sites. Please take a few minutes to familiarize yourself with this site etiquette guide that will facilitate an enjoyable visit for you, AND for future visitors! Archeological sites in Arizona are the remains of a long occupation of prehistoric, protohistoric, and historic cultures. They are a fragile and non-renewable resource. You are responsible for the stewardship of these sites, both for public enjoyment and education, and for preserving their scientific values. The following guidelines will help you minimize impacts to archeological sites:

Walls are fragile and continually deteriorating. That is why they are commonly called “ruins.” Climbing, leaning, sitting, or standing on walls can damage them. Also, picking up or moving rocks, of any size, alters the walls forever.

Artifacts, where they lay, tell a story. Once they are moved, a piece of the past is destroyed forever. Digging, removing artifacts, or piling them up, changes what can be learned from the pieces of the past.

Cultural deposits, including the soil in an archeological site, are important for scientific tests and are used in reconstructing and understanding past environments. For instance, from such information we can learn what kinds of plants were being used by the past inhabitants. Please refrain from eating in these sites as they may leave behind crumbs, and please carry out any trash (especially organic remains) you may have while visiting as these may attract critters.

Fragile desert plants and soils that are part of archeological sites are destroyed when you stray from the trail. Snakes and other small desert animals make their homes in the bushes, under rocks, and in burrows. You may disturb them or put yourself in harm by venturing off trail. Please stay on designated trails, they are there for your protection and the protection of fragile cultural remains and desert life.

Fire destroys prehistoric organic materials, ruins the potential dating of artifacts, and damages or even destroys rock art. Absolutely no fires, candles, or smoking should occur at archeological sites.

Oils from even the cleanest hands can cause deterioration of prehistoric walls and drawings, and can ruin the dating potential for future scientists trying to unravel the meaning of symbols painted and pecked on stone. Please refrain from touching rock art or any ancient walls when visiting archeological sites.

Graffiti (drawing/painting, scratching, and carving) is destructive and can destroy rock art as well as deface wooden/stone buildings. Graffiti destroys rock art as well as other historic values

Pets damage sites by digging, urinating, and defecating in them. They can destroy fragile cultural deposits and frighten other visitors and native animals. Please do not bring pets into archeological sites.

Be aware of your surroundings when you are outdoors. Avoid driving off designated roads, or riding your bicycle through sites, pitching your camp in a site, dismantling historic buildings for firewood or any other use, and camping or making campfires in historic buildings. All archeological sites on public (federal and state) land in Arizona are protected by the Archaeological Resources Protection Act in addition to state laws, that prohibit digging, removing artifacts, damaging and/or defacing archeological resources, and protects graves (human remains) and grave goods located on state and private land. These laws provide for both felony and misdemeanor charges with jail time, confiscation of property, and large fines. Due to the sensitivity and fragility of these sites, please do not disclose information about where sites are located, as it could potentially lead to those sites being vandalized or looted. If you see people vandalizing sites, please report it as soon as possible to the public land manager (e.g., the Forest Service, the Arizona State Land Department, etc.) or their law enforcement entity. By following these simple guidelines, you can help preserve these unique and fragile remains of our American heritage. Remember, the future of the past depends of you! Thanks for your cooperation, and we hope that you enjoy visiting archeological sites in Arizona, and wherever your travels may take you.

Tonto National Monument protects two prehistoric cliff dwellings and diverse artifacts. Located within the Tonto Basin of the Upper Sonoran Desert, this National Park Service site provides opportunities to experience a thriving culture deeply rooted in its natural setting, while encouraging our own connections to the environment. Learn more about the Lower Cliff Dwelling and the Upper Cliff Dwelling . Salado architecture, pottery, textiles, and other artifacts exemplify beautiful, complex craftsmanship, influenced by the continuous movement of people and ideas. Such artifacts demonstrate the importance of cultural identity and artistic expression in the past, both of which remain integral to society today. For nearly 10,000 years, the Tonto Basin has provided, and continues to provide, a home to many diverse people. Archaeological evidence suggests that Ancient peoples traveled extensively throughout this and surrounding areas. Several American Indian tribes such as White Mountain, Chiricahua, and Tonto Apaches, Yavapais, Pima-Maricopas, and more call this area home today. Many of these tribes feel strong spiritual ties to the cliff dwellings, deeming them to be an ancestral home. Learn more about these people , places , and stories .

Situated in the northeast Sonoran Desert amongst rugged terrain, Tonto National Monument preserves a wide variety of natural resources. The surrounding mountains, built by uplifted sedimentary layers , are continually being shaped through erosion and weathering. From the valley to the mountain tops, through open areas, nestled in canyons, and hidden among washes are different local environments, each with their own community of plants and animals . This tremendous diversity and interconnection of life is what forms the Sonoran Desert.

This area of the desert experiences hot summers. Both people and wildlife are more active during the cooler morning and evening hours. During cool winters many animals are visible during the day. Even with two rainy seasons, the average rainfall is only fifteen inches. Storms entering the valley don't always leave behind moisture.

At Tonto National Monument and 10 other southwestern parks, the Sonoran Desert Network (SODN) conducts long-term inventory, monitoring, and reporting on key park resources. They assess the condition of park ecosystems and develop a stronger scientific basis for stewardship and management of natural resources. At Tonto, the network monitors air quality, climate, exotic plants , groundwater, landbirds, seeps, springs, tinajas, terrestrial vegetation, soils, and washes.

Through the play of light and shadow, vistas change -- hour by hour, season by season. Within the dwellings, or looking out over the valley and steep slopes of surrounding mountains, the ever-changing scenes emphasize the need to guard the resources of this desert environment.

Many environmental features made the Tonto Basin an appealing place for the Salado people.

Although Tonto National Monument was established to preserve two prehistoric cliff dwellings, it also protects a great diversity of plant and animal life. Over 160 species of birds have been observed or heard within the Monument. Learn about the most commonly seen species below or download our bird list for a complete listing.

Falco sparverius Length: 9" Wing-span: 22" Diet: Insects and small animals American Kestrels are one of the smallest falcons and most colorful raptors. Males have a blue head and wings which contrast with the rusty-red back and tail. Females are red on the wings, back, and tail. They are solitary and hunt within a small range.

Polipotila melanura Length: 4.5" Wing-span: 5.5" Diet: Small insects This tiny songbird has a thin, straight bill and a long black tail. Dark gray above and paler gray underneath, their eyes stand out due to the white rings around them. Their call is a dry hissing pssh sound and a very harsh tssh-tssh-tssh series. Rarely heard, their song is a jumble of high chips and warbles.

Amphizspiza bilineata Length: 5.5" Wing-span: 7.75" Diet: Insects and seeds This relatively small sparrow has brown plumage, black throat and breast, and a white eyebrow. Juveniles do not yet have a black throat. Their calls are a jumble of notes that sound like tinkling bells.

Campylohynchus brunneicapillus Length: 8.5" Wing-span: 11" Diet: Insects and fruit The Cactus Wren is a large, chunky bird with a long heavy bill, a long, rounded tail, and short, rounded wings. They are a speckled brown with bright white eyebrows. Often, their oval nests can be found in cacti. Their call is a low hallow kot given in a series. Their song is a log, chugging, unmusical series of krrr krrr krr .

Pipilo fuscus Length: 9" Wing-span: 11.5" Diet: Seeds, fruit, and insects These large, warm-brown sparrows have long tails, chunky bodies, short rounded wings, and a short, thick bill. They are commonly seen on the ground in parking lots and underneath shrubs. Their call is a nasal tinny kidl or kilt w hile their song is a methodical, slow trill of short whistled notes: kild ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti kill .

Catherpes mexicanus Length: 5.75" Wing-span: 7.5" Diet: Insects and spiders This small songbird has a brown body, a white throat, and a long, thin bill. They usually climb around on rock faces looking for food. Their call is a high ringing buzz jink while their song is a cascading series of clear whistles ending with nasal hissing noises.

Length: 8.75" Wing-span: 12" Diet: Seeds, fruit, and insect larvae Cardinals are a fairly large, long-tailed bird with a short, very thick bill and prominent crest. Adult males are uniquely colored, with a bright red body, a black face, and an obvious, pointed crest. Adult females are similarly shaped, but are pale brown in color, with a reddish tinge on the wings, tail, and crest. Their call is a sharp, somewhat metallic chip . While their song is a series of high, clear, and mostly slurred whistles woit woit woit chew chew chew chew chew or pichew pichew tiw tiw tiw tiw tiw tiw with many variations.

Tonto National Monument supports a high diversity of flora that leads to an incredible natural ecosystem that the Salado people used 700 years ago. We call this ethnobotany, or the traditional knowledge of how people use native plants. The Three Sisters method of planting is still used today. Learn about the different cacti and desert succulents , trees and shrubs , wildflowers , and exotic plants found in Tonto National Monument. At the northeastern edge of the Sonoran Desert, the Monument is lush with plant life.These plants have different adaptations to the cycles of rain and drought. Some seeds lie dormant, waiting for the right combination of moisture and temperature. Other plants have deep root systems that seek water far beneath the surface. Still other plants use their shallow root systems to collect rain that rushed across the surface. Besides root systems, some plants rely on their leaf structure to prevent loss of moisture, while others just lose their leaves during drought. The different plant communities are reflective of the elevation changes within the Monument. Sonoran Desert Scrub vegetation is most commonly seen with a mixture of cactus, trees, shrubs, and flowers. Higher up, the vegetation transitions to a Semi-desert Grassland. Desert Riparian Scrub exists in canyon bottoms and washes where enough water passes through or is stored for desert trees and bushes. There is also a small interior Southwestern Riparian Deciduous Forest supported by the permanent spring in Cave Canyon. With its leafy shade trees and the gentle sound of running water, this desert oasis is home to mosses, ferns, and the many animals that enjoy its habitat.

Although Tonto National Monument was established to preserve the cliff dwellings, it also protects a great diversity of plants and animals. The Monument covers less than two square miles in area, but is home to at least 160 species of birds , 6 species of amphibians , 32 species of reptiles , 40 species of mammals , and countless species of insects including bees .

The Monument's great diversity can be explained in part by its location on the edge of two very different landforms: the Superstition Mountains to the southwest, and the Salt River and Tonto Creek valley to the north and east. Between the valley and mountains lies a bajada of eroded sediments, bisected by dry washes. As the bajada slopes north towards the river (now Roosevelt Lake), conditions become drier and warmer, and the vegetation is more desert-like. Not surprisingly, the short distance from the mountains to the valley brings many changes in wildlife.

Another feature of great significance to animals is Cave Creek Canyon, which runs below the Upper Cliff Dwelling, through the Visitor Center area, and north to Roosevelt Lake. North of the Visitor Center, Cave Creek Canyon is dry for most of the year. To the south, however, it contains a perennial spring and tall trees, including Arizona walnuts and sycamores. This small shaded riparian area is visited by many species of wildlife, and was no doubt heavily used by the Salado, who built their dwellings overlooking the spring.

Tonto National Monument, which lies at the northeastern boundary of the Sonoran Desert, is home to a surprising diversity of native plant species, ranging from the treasured saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) to the Arizona sycamore ( Platanus wrightii ).

Exotic invasive plants also can be found at the Monument. Within the U.S., these non-native plants threaten native plant diversity and cause economic impacts estimated at more than $100 billion annually. In addition to competing with and displacing native plants, these introduced species can hybridize with natives, alter growing conditions, and promote the establishment and spread of other non-native plants. The National Park Service considers non-native invasive plants to be the “single most formidable threat of natural disaster of the 21 st century”.

Invasive plants increase fire hazard and can alter the frequency and intensity of fires. They can destroy or reduce habitat for native plants and animals and decrease the food supply for herbivores. Invasive plant species consume about 4,600 acres per day in the West, competing with native plants and agricultural crops for scarce water resources.

The Sonoran Institute and National Park Service staff conducted an inventory of exotic plants at Tonto National Monument during the summer of 2005. Four species, all grasses, were recorded in high densities and over large areas: wild oats ( Avena fatua ), red brome ( Bromus rubens ), ripgut brome ( Bromus rigidus ), and Lehmann lovegrass ( Eragrostis lehmanniana ). These non-native species are the most problematic within the Monument due to their relative abundance, difficulty to control, and level of impact on the surrounding ecosystem.

Red brome is of particular concern within the Monument. It can impact the frequency, intensity, and rate of spread of wildfires. Additionally, this non-native species can displace native plants. Red brome can be found throughout Tonto National Monument, ranging from 6 to 50% cover.

Buffelgrass ( Pennisetum ciliare ) is an additional species of concern. This is the first record of buffelgrass at Tonto National Monument. While not widespread within the Monument – growing only along the sides of Highway 188 – it is of great concern as it invades aggressively. All of the buffelgrass recorded during the survey has been removed and new individuals are sought out on a regular basis by park staff to help eliminate the threat of spread by vehicles, animals, and foot traffic.

The National Park Service uses sound science to make decisions about how to manage the land and resources of the Monument. Early detection, status, and trends of exotic plant species comprise two of the Sonoran Desert Network Inventory and Monitoring Program’s vital signs. The Sonoran Desert Network is one of the first networks in the United States to develop vital signs or monitoring protocols for its national parks. Vital signs measure changes over time in ecosystems and help land managers make better decisions. To monitor the exotic plants in Tonto National Monument, researchers used an intensive mapping method, conducting walking surveys to map individual plants and invaded regions using handheld computers and global positioning system units. The mapping process allows the park’s staff to monitor the presence and abundance of non-native invasive plants in the park, and allows them to control and eradicate those plants.

Manual removal has ensured the control or eradication of several non-native plants. The Monument collaborates with other agencies, organizations, and visitors to effectively control and eradicate invasive plants. Several volunteer projects have been organized to help remove invasive plants. Park staff and volunteers have spent numerous hours removing early season and annual invasive grasses. Along with treatment, park staff continues to remove invasive plants on a regular basis.

The Salado built their homes into naturally formed caves that offered shelter from the heat, predators, neighbors, and seasonal monsoons. These caves were formed over a period of hundreds of thousands of years by water passing through and over the rock, slowly and consistently carrying away its binding agents. This leaves cracks which expand until the rock spalls, or breaks off, and shatters into multiple smaller rocks. This happened many times until what was left were the harder, more resistant rocks known as Dripping Spring quartzite and the "natural cement," known as caliche. The Salado people were very particular with which caves they resided in, and chose the few that face east. This gave them sunlight during the long winter mornings and shade during the hot summer afternoons. Although there are only a couple caves with Salado architecture inside, there are many cave formations all over the Tonto Basin area that have formed and continue to grow.

The Tonto Basin is surrounded by immense mountain formations with the Mogollon Rim to the north, the Sierra Ancha to the east, the Superstition Mountains to the south, and the Mazatzal Mountains to the west. About one billion years ago, seas covered the current Arizona landscape. When they receded, they left sedimentary and igneous rock underneath folded and riddled with faults. As thousands of years passed, these rocks were buried, broken, and some eventually pushed back up to the surface. There is much that still lays hidden underneath today's rock surface and mountains.

In addition to all that lies under the surface of these mountain ranges, there is much that remains on the visible terrain. In this basin and range topography, plants and wildlife flourish. As adapt and resilient as the flora has to be, there are some areas where particular plants cannot grow. This is mainly due to the differing amounts of daily sunlight and different moisture levels in the soil. This specifically happens on mountain sides facing northeast where there is minimal sun exposure. When the distinctive climate of a small-scale area differs from its surroundings, it is called a microclimate . Saguaro, ocotillo, mesquite trees, cholla, and many other types of Arizona vegetation are dependent on the harsh sunlight the desert provides and do not grow in the colder microclimates.

Length: 3.5" Wing-span: 4.75" Diet: Nectar and insects Adult males have a purplish crown and long flared throat feathers. The throat and under side of adult females are dingy white to pale gray with a pale "eyebrow". Their call is a very high, musical chip . Their song is a very high, thin, rising, and falling buzz .

Length: 11" Wing-span: 13.5" Diet: Forages on the ground, tossing leaves and debris with their bill to expose insects and other invertebrates This dull grayish brown bird is a large, long-tailed songbird. It has a long, thin, slightly down-curved bill. Its call is a distinctive, sharp, liquid whistle wit-WEET-wit . Its song is similar to other thrashers, but more harsh and hurried with many short, sharp notes such as quit quit and weet .

Length: 10" Wing-span: 14" Diet: Seeds, leaves, and insects This quail is plump, short-tailed, and has grayish plumage. Both adult males and females have the prominent tear-drop shaped head plume or double plume. Males give a repeated nasal pup waay pop with a short clipped final note call.

Length: 9.25" Wing-span: 16" Diet: Insects, fruit, seeds, occasionally bird eggs, and lizards This medium to large woodpecker has a barred black-and-white back, and a brown face and neck. Adult males have a red cap. They are a characteristic bird of Saguaro cactus forests. Their call is a loud harsh quirrrr . They drum long and steady.

Colaptes chrysoides Length: 11" Wing-span: 18" Diet: Insects, fruits, and seeds This medium to large woodpecker is grayish brown, with a barred pattern on top and spotted pattern below. They have a black crescent on their chest. While in flight, their white rump and yellow wing patches are obvious. Their call is a long series of long wik-wik-wik notes.

Carpodactus mexicanus Length: 6" Wing-span: 9.5" Diet: Seeds, fruit, and other insects These small-bodied birds have fairly large beaks and somewhat long, flat heads. Their wings are short, making their tail seem long by comparison. Adult males are red around the face and upper breast, with a brown back, belly, and tail. Adult females are not red; they are a plain grayish-brown. Their flight call is a soft husky fidlp or vweet . Their song is a varied warble with a steady tempo; it begins with high clear notes and ends with lower blurry notes.

Carduelis pstaltia Length: 4.5" Wing-span: 8" Diet: Seeds These tiny, stub-billed songbirds have long, pointed wings, and short, notched tails. Adult males are bright yellow below a black cap with white patches on their wings. Adult females have olive colored backs, dull yellow underparts, and black wings marked by two white wingbars. Their call is a high, clear wiry tleeee , teeeyEE , or teseeeeeeeeew . Their song is slow and hoarse, often imitating other species.

Length: 7.75" Wing-span: 11" Diet: Berries The phainopepla is a slender, long-tailed, round-winged bird with red eyes and a shaggy crest. Adult males are shiny black with white wing patches; adult females are grayish with white edging on all wing feathers. Their call is a low questioning hoi . Their song is a series of disjointed, short, warbled phrases that may be grating in quality.

Salpinctes obsoleuts Length: 6" Wing-span: 9" Diet: Insects and other arthropods This small songbird has a pale gray back, faintly striped throat, a long tail, and a long, thin bill. They often stand on top of rock and bounce (as if doing deep knee-bends) while giving a ringing call. Their call is a ringing buss pdzeeee which can be heard from a great distance. Their song is series of buzzy, trilled, ringing phrases which are repeated three to six times in regular rhythm.

Sayornis saya Length: 7.5" Wing-span: 13" Diet: Insects This slender, long-tailed flycatcher appears to have a large head for a bird of its size. They are a pale brownish color on their back with a cinnamon belly, a blackish tail and a gray breast. Their call is a low, plaintive, whistled pdeer or tueee . Their song is a series of relatively low, whistled phrases pidiweew and pidireep .

Cathartes aura Length: 26" Wing-span: 67" Diet: Carrion Turkey Vultures are large dark birds with long, broad wings. These wings have pale flight feathers giving them a two-toned appearance. Their head is red and featherless with a pale bill. While flying, they teeter. They make soft hissing and clucking noises which are seldom heard.

Length: 4.5" Wing-span: 6.5" Diet: Small insects, fruit, and nectar Verdins are a small dull gray bird with a yellow face and chestnut shoulders. Their call is a clear tschep and rapid chip notes. Their song is a three-note whistle, tee tyew too , with the second note higher.

Zonotrichia leucophrys Length: 7" Wing-span: 9.5" Diet: Seeds and insects This large sparrow has a small bill and a long tail. They are a plan, pale-gray bird with a very bold black-and-white strip on the head and a pale pink or yellow bill. Their call is a sharp plink . Their song varies regionally, but often contains a series of buzzy trills on different pitches: f eeee odi odi zeee zaaaa zooo .

Aeronautes saxatalis Length: 6.5" Wing-span: 15" Diet: Flying insects This small bird has a black back, wings, and tail and a white throat, belly, and sides of the rump. Their wings are long, pointed, and swept back. They are mainly seen around their nests on rocky cliffs, especially above the Lower Cliff Dwelling. Their call is a long descending series of scraping notes ki ki ki ki kir kir kir kiir kiir kirsh krrs krrsh.

Call 911 or Contact Park Staff in an Emergency. Prepared and Aware We want you to enjoy your visit! The first step is learning how to visit safely. Being prepared and aware of safety concerns helps avoid damaging fragile natural and cultural resources. The National Parks Service protects all wildlife, plants, rocks, and artifacts. Please leave everything the way you find it at Tonto National Monument. Hiking is limited to designated trails. Watch your step and please do not lean or sit on any cliff dwelling walls. Venomous Reptiles and Insects Scorpions, tarantulas, and centipedes cause an extremely painful sting. Rattlesnakes and Gila Monsters will deliver a life-threatening bite if they feel threatened. Please give them the right of way by staying back at least 10 feet (3 m). If they do not move out of the way or are very close to the trail, contact the Park Staff. Cactus Many plants in the Sonoran Desert have spines and needles. It is best to avoid touching plants, even if it looks fuzzy. If you get poked, wash the area thoroughly with soap and water. Use tweezers to remove spines if necessary. Seek professional medical advice about the possibility of infection. Africanized Bees Bees at Tonto can be aggressive. If you see a solitary bee, do not swat at it. If there is a swarm nearby, seek shelter immediately in the Visitor Center or your car. Bees will also 'pelt' or run into you without stinging as a warning sign. Consider seeking shelter soon. Water Water is necessary when hiking to the Lower or Upper Cliff Dwelling. Please bring a bottle with you. Free spring water is available to refill bottles in the Visitor Center. Watch for signs of heat related emergencies. If you feel dizzy, nausea, very hot, or out of breath sit down in the shade and sip water. Call 911 or contact park staff if it is an emergency or you do not feel better after a short rest.