Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site ⓘ

A respected Union officer and gentleman, Captain Silas S. Soule proved his convictions by refusing to fire at the Sand Creek Massacre. This man of character, born in Maine to an abolitionist family, moved to Kansas in the late 1850's. The Soule family was one of the founding families of Lawrence, Kansas and very active in the Underground Railroad. Following the execution of famed abolitionist John Brown in 1859, Silas Soule traveled to Harper's Ferry, West Virginia, in an attempt to rescue two of Brown's followers. The rescue mission failed but Soule proved his courage and resourcefulness. Five years later at Sand Creek, his convictions would be tested again.

In 1860 Soule joined the rush to the Pike's Peak region in Colorado Territory, where he mined for gold and blacksmithed. With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, he left the gold fields for service in the Army and earned a commission as a lieutenant in Company K of the Colorado 1 st Regiment of Volunteer (U.S.) Infantry.

The 1 st Regiment was sent to New Mexico to stop an invading Confederate Army. The Armies clashed in March at Glorietta Pass, near Pecos, NM, and of the intense fighting, Soule "recalled fighting hand to hand over rocks, stumps and trees." The Coloradans, under the command of Colonel John Slough and Major John Chivington helped bring about a Union victory that saw the collapse of Confederate invasion.

After Glorietta Pass, the 1st Regiment was officially converted to a cavalry unit and stationed throughout Colorado Territory. Commanding Officer Colonel John Chivington promoted Soule to Captain and assigned him to Fort Lyon along the Santa Fe Trail.

In September 1864, Soule and his commanding officer, Major Edward Wynkoop, participated in the Smoky Hill peace talks with Cheyenne and Arapaho Peace Chiefs. Later, he traveled with Wynkoop and the Cheyenne and Arapaho Chiefs to Denver for a meeting at Camp Weld with Governor and ex-officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs John Evans and Chivington.

Soule's presence at both of these important peace meetings reinforced the decisions he made at Sand Creek on November 29, 1864, when he showed extraordinary courage in refusing to participate in the massacre of the peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho. During the attack, Soule and his company of soldiers refused to fight and in the days following the massacre, Soule wrote the chilling and explicit letter that is reproduced below. He was one of the first to testify against Chivington during the Army's investigation in January 1865.

In April of 1865, Silas Soule married Hersa Coberly and the couple made their home in Denver. Less than 80 days following his testimony to the military inquiry, Soule was shot and killed in the streets of Denver while performing his duties as Provost Marshal. His murderers, though known, were never brought to justice.

Letter from Captain Soule to his former commanding officer, Major Ned Wynkoop. This letter details the firsthand experiences of Soule at the Sand Creek Massacre and helped to bring awareness of the events of November 29, 1864 to a wider public. Please read with empathy and care; this letter is graphic and disturbing.

This is the first opportunity I have had of writing you since the great Indian Massacre, and for a start, I will acknowledge I am ashamed to own I was in it with my Co. Col. Chivington came down here with the gallant third known as Chivington Brigade, like a thief in the dark throwing his Scouts around the Post, with instructions to let no one out, without his orders, not even the Commander of the Post, and for the shame, our Commanding Officer submitted. Col. Chivington expected to find the Indians in camp below the Com---- (commissary) but the Major Comd'g told him all about where the Indians were, and volunteered to take a Battalion from the Post and Join the Expedition.

Well Col. Chiv. got in about 10 a.m., Nov. 28th and at 8 p.m. we started with all of the 3rd parts of "H" "O" and "E" of the First, in command of Lt. Wilson Co. "K" "D" and "G" in commanding of Major Anthony. Marched all night up Sand, to the big bend in Sandy, about 15 or 20 miles, above where we crossed on our trip to Smoky Hill and came on to Black Kettles village of 103 lodges, containing not over 500 all told, 350 of which were women and children. Three days previous to our going out, Major Anthony gave John Smith, Lowderbuck of Co. "G" and a government driver, permission to go out there and trade with them, and they were in the village when the fight came off. John Smith came out holding up his hands and running towards us, when he was shot at by several, and the word was passed along to shoot him. He then turned back, and went to his tent and got behind some Robes, and escaped unhurt. Lowderbuck came out with a white flag, and was served the same as John Smith, the driver the same. Well I got so mad I swore I would not burn powder, and I did not. Capt. Soule the same. It is no use for me to try to tell you how the fight was managed, only that I think the Officer in Command should be hung, and I know when the truth is known it will cashier him.

We lost 40 men wounded, and 10 killed. Not over 250 Indians mostly women and children, and I think not over 200 were killed, and not over 75 bucks. With proper management they could all have been killed and not lost over 10 men. After the fight there was a sight I hope I may never see again.

Bucks, women, and children were scalped, fingers cut off to get the rings on them, and this as much with Officers as men, and one of those Officers a Major, and a Lt. Col. cut off Ears, of all he came across, a woman* ripped open and a child taken from her, little children shot, while begging for their lives (and all the indignities shown their bodies that was ever heard of) (women shot while on their knees, with their arms around soldiers a begging for their lives.) things that Indians would be ashamed to do. To give you some little idea, women* were known to kill their own children, and then themselves, rather than to have them taken prisoners. Most of the Indians yielded 4 or 5 scalps. But enough! for I know you are disgusted already. Black Kettle, White Antelope, War Bonnet, Left Hand, Little Robe and several other chiefs were killed. Black Kettle said when he saw us coming, that he was glad, for it was Major Wynkoop coming to make peace. Left Hand stood with his hands folded across his breast, until he was shot saying, "Soldiers no hurt me - soldiers my friends." One Eye was killed; was in the employ of Gov't as spy; came into the Post a few days before, and reported about the Sioux, were going to break out at Learned, which proved true.

After all the pledges made my Major A- to these Indians and then take the course he did. I think as comments are necessary from me; only I will say he has a face for every man he talks. The action taken by Capt. Soule and myself were under protest. Col. A– was going to have Soule hung for saying there were all cowardly Sons of B----s; if Soule did not take it back, but nary take a back with Soule. I told the Col. that I thought it murder to jump them friendly Indians. He says in reply; Damn any man or men who are in sympathy with them. Such men as you and Major Wynkoop better leave the U. S. Service, so you can judge what a nice time we had on the trip. I expect Col. C- and Downing will do all in their power to have Soule, Cossitt and I dismissed. Well, let them work for what they damn please, I ask no favors of them. If you are in Washington, for God's sake, Major, keep Chivington from being a Bri'g Genl. which he expects. I will send you the Denver Papers with this. Excuse this for I have been in much of a hurry.

John (Jack) Smith was taken prisoner and then murdered. One little child 3 months old was thrown in the feed box of a wagon and brought one days march, and there was left on the ground to perish. Col. Tappan is after them for all that is out. I am making out a report of all from beginning to end, to send to Gen'l Slough, in hopes that he will have the thing investigated, and if you should see him, please speak to him about it, for fear that he has forgotten me. I shall write him nothing but what can be proven.

Major I am ashamed of this. I have it gloriously mixed up, but in hopes I can explain it all to you before long. I would have given my right arm had you been here, when they arrived.

(signed) Joe A. Cramer *In the original account, a derogatory term is used to refer to native women.

One of the most important parts of the Sand Creek Massacre narrative lies in the many connections formed between the people, events, and places of the prairie. Some accounts of the plains often stress the isolation of plains societies and cultural differences between settlers and Plains Indians, ignoring how relationships formed and developed over the years. These connections remain relevant today because of their relevance to Sand Creek Massacre's national impact.

For instance, William Bent, his brother Chalres, and their business partner Ceran St. Vrain built Fort Bent on the Arkansas River in 1833, drawing people for hundreds of miles and co-mingling Mexican laborers, U.S. Army Soldiers, American frontiersmen, Plains Indians, and Santa Fe traders in one place. William Bent's three "halfbreed" sons all witnessed the Sand Creek Massacre. George Bent in particular lent his knowledge and connections to George Bird Grinnell as he wrote about his experiences, Cheyenne customs, and plains society.

Some witnesses to the Sand Creek Massacre hailed from storied backgrounds, such as Jim Beckwourth. Beckwourth lived among the Crow, scouted the West, served the federal government on several occasions, and worked as an early African-American pioneer. Colonel Shoup hired Beckwourth to guide and interpret for his forces; when Chivington's men attacked at Sand Creek, Beckwourth expressed his outrage and testified to the murder of John Smith's son Jack, a prisoner in the camp.

People within the village at Sand Creek responded differently to the Massacre; many, such as Little Bear and his friend George Bent, fought against encroaching whites, demonstrating their resistance to this assault on their way of life. Both would eventually move to the reservation in Oklahoma. Others, such as Mochi (Buffalo Calf Woman), continued to fight white settlers until forced to surrender. Mochi became the only American Indian woman subsequently imprisoned by the U.S. Federal Government at Fort Marion, also known as Castillo De San Marcos .

Other notable connections came with the passage of time: for instance, Black Kettle served as a notable peace chief for years before Sand Creek. Surviving Sand Creek, he continued to advocate for peace until he was killed at the Battle of Washita four years later by Colonel George Custer and members of the U.S. Army's 7th Cavalry. Custer himself faced the wrath of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Sioux eight years later at the Little Bighorn . There, some survivors of the Sand Creek Massacre faced against soldiers of the 7th Cavalry on the battlefield.

Many of the connections formed at Sand Creek remain in the namesakes of Colorado: The former Mount Evans and the town of Evans bear the name of the Territorial Governor, while Downing Street in Denver honors Major Jacob Downing. Other locations have changed their names: Chivington Drive in Longmont, Colorado became Sunset Drive, Nichols Hall at Colorado University at Boulder changed into Cheyenne Arapaho Hall, and Colorado State University now calls Pingree Park its Mountain Campus. The legacy of Sand Creek surrounds American society even as sites like the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site seek to heal the wounds of the massacre.

Son of a French father and Cheyenne mother, Edmond Guerrier witnessed the Sand Creek Massacre in the Cheyenne village. His official testimony about the event is of special interest - formally educated at St. Mary's Diocesan Academy in St. Louis, he was able to provide his account of the massacre in English.

Guerrier stated that, " I was at the time of the attack, sleeping in a lodge. I heard, at first, some of the women* outside say there were a lot of buffalo coming into camp; others said there were a lot of soldiers ."

"... before we got outside the edge of the tent I could see the soldiers begin to dismount. I thought they were artillerymen and were about to shell the camp. I had hardly spoken when they began firing with their rifles and pistols."

" I saw as soon as the firing began, from the number of troops, that there could be no resistance, and I escaped as quick as I could ."

"I went to the northeast; I ran about five miles, when I came across an Indian woman driving a herd of ponies, some ten or fifteen. I got a pony. She was a cousin of mine - one of White Antelope's daughters (Pipe Woman?). I went on with her to Smoky Hill."

In the years after Sand Creek, Guerrier became a scout, interpreter and rancher. After the passage of the Dawes Act, he was allotted land within the former Cheyenne and Arapaho Reservation along with other Cheyenne. Guerrier's land lay in Canadian County, Oklahoma, near the town of Geary, which is named for him.

Ed Guerrier married Julia Bent, daughter of William Bent and Owl Woman. Much like his brother-in-law George Bent, historians and authors approached Guerrier wanting to learn "old time" Indian stories and history, or have them interpreted into English.

Ed and Julia Guerrier had several children - Rosa, William, and Annie. One of Guerrier's grandsons, Charles Guerrier, suffered wounds in the Pacific during WWII. A granddaughter of the Guerrier's, Ann Pratt Shadlow, was a highly respected tribal member and storyteller. Ann, or Pretty Wings, passed away November 15, 2002 at 91 years. * In the original account a derogatory term is used to refer to native women.

Jacob Downing arrived in Colorado during the 1859 Gold Rush. He served as an early Municipal Court Judge in Denver before volunteering for service with the 1st Regiment of Colorado Infantry (later Cavalry). In this role, Major Downing participated in the Civil War battles of Apache Canyon, Pigeon's Ranch and Peralta in New Mexico. After a stint as Post Commander at Fort Larned, KS., Colonel John Chivington promoted Downing to Assistant Inspector General for the District of Colorado. During the Indian War of 1864, he commanded several companies of cavalry which attacked and burned several Cheyenne villages, including one at Cedar Canyon north of the South Platte in Colorado Territory. Major Downing actively participated in the Sand Creek Massacre. In 1865, Downing provided legal counsel in the defense of Colonel Chivington during the military inquest. Downing's career included a position as Probate Judge for Arapahoe County, Colorado. Prior to his death in 1907, Downing amassed considerable property in the Denver area, including a 2,000 acre ranch near Green Mountain where he grew alfalfa and raised shorthorn cattle and Arabian horses. In 1911, Downing's widow Caroline donated a scalp lock taken by the Major at Sand Creek to the Colorado Historical Society. Ironically, Downing testified to the military commission in 1865, "I saw no soldier scalping anybody, but saw one or two bodies that had been scalped."

The morning of November 29 th , 1864, the Chiefs Black Kettle, White Antelope, One Eye, Yellow Wolf, Big Man, Bear Man, War Bonnet, Spotted Crow, Bear Robe, and others such as Grey Beard (aka Wolf Grey) and Little Bear were encamped by the Big Sandy Creek, some 40 miles north of Fort Lyon. Alongside these Chiefs were around 750 people from the Arapaho and Cheyenne Plains Native American Tribes. After years of turmoil caused by the western expansion by the American Colonist, the Cheyenne and Arapaho people suffered greatly from reduced hunting grounds. The Treaty of Fort Laramie began the process of limiting how much land Native Americans would have in the Great Plains. It was the encampment by the Big Sandy Creek of Arapaho and Cheyenne people who were hoping to find peace between the American Colonist’ Military and the Tribes who lived on the plains for many generations. A proclamation sent out at the beginning of the summer of 1864 by the Governor of the Territory of Colorado, John Evans, had commanded all “Friendly” Native Americans of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to go to Fort Lyon to receive supplies and to find safety. Unfortunately, this was in direct conflict with the standing order at all Forts within the Territory of Colorado that all members of the Military should shoot and kill any Native American that approached a Fort. Responding to the proclamation, Chief Black Kettle of the Cheyenne had taken the steps to negotiate peace and had contacted Major Wynkoop at Fort Lyon. It was Chief Black Kettle’s hope that, should this peace be successful, he and his people could live free once more. But until that peace was settled, Chief Black Kettle was fearful for his people, who were subject to violence by the American Military. Despite the best efforts of Edward Wynkoop , both Governor Evans and Colonel Chivington failed to negotiate peace with Chief Black Kettle. Wynkoop was instructed to indicate where the Arapaho and Cheyenne should stay near Fort Lyon until negotiations could be continued. At the command of the American Military, Chief Black Kettle settled his people, around 750 Cheyenne and Arapaho, in a bend of the Big Sandy Creek. Made up of women, children and the elderly, this encampment was prepared to move to Fort Lyon at a moment’s notice, where they could find safety and supplies from the American Military. On that cold November morning, Colonel Chivington and elements of the 1 st Colorado Infantry Regiment of Volunteers (US) and 3 rd Regiment of Colorado Cavalry Volunteers (US), arrived just southwest of the Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment. Colonel Chivington was never given orders to leave Denver, and at around 6:30, the soldiers would open fire amongst the lodges of the innocent and unaware Arapaho and Cheyenne civilians. Over the course of eight hours the American troops killed around 230 Cheyenne and Arapaho people composed mostly of women, children, and the elderly. During the afternoon and following day, the soldiers wandered over the field committing atrocities on the dead before departing the scene on December 1 st . Since the barbarism of November 29, the Sand Creek Massacre maintains its status as one of the most emotionally charged and controversial events in American history, a tragedy reflective of its time and place. The Sand Creek Massacre lay in a whirlwind of events and issues exacerbated by the ongoing Civil War. Critically, the Sand Creek Massacre stands as a testament to a brutality that should be learned from and never repeated, a lesson of what the rejection of conscience in the face of fear and hysteria can lead to, and the suffering that this betrayal has imparted on generations of Arapaho and Cheyenne people.

In 2000, manuscript copies of letters from Captain Silas Soule and Lieutenant Joseph Cramer were found in Denver. These letters, as firsthand accounts of the massacre, reveal the moral resistance of some of the soldiers to the barbarism that surrounded them. As primary sources, these letters show much about the atrocities at Sand Creek while also demonstrating how a hundred men stood in resistance to orders. To learn more about the people involved and who witnessed the tragic events of the Sand Creek Massacre, go to our People page to read their stories.

Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site (NHS) was established in 2007, in part to preserve and protect the cultural landscape of the massacre area. Protection of native biological resources, including animals, is integral to preserving the cultural landscape. Sand Creek Massacre NHS is primarily composed of shortgrass prairie and sage shrubland. Sand Creek, an intermittent stream, crosses the site. Shortgrass prairies support numerous animal and plant species, including federal and state listed endangered, threatened, and candidate species.

The natural environment has impacted the lifestyles of humans who have used the area for the past 8,000–10,000 years. Humans have also left their mark on the landscape. The site and surrounding area have been affected by hunting, grazing, cultivation, water diversion, development, introduction of non-native species, and local extinction (extirpation) of native species such as pronghorn antelope and bison. The landscape of Sand Creek Massacre NHS is a record of human relationships with the natural environment, the contrasting values of Indians and Euroamericans, and their competition for limited resources. The environmental history of the site describes how the impacts of human actions contributed to how the environment changed over time.

The continued protection and preservation of these resources will contribute to the changing diversity of the ecosystem and biological communities of the Plains and Sand Creek Massacre NHS. Scientific study and observation of these resources will add to our understanding of this unique environment.

To protect the treasures in their care, park managers need accurate information about what kinds of resources are in the park, how and why they are changing over time, and what amount of change is normal. Like a physician monitoring a patient's heartbeat and blood pressure, ecologists with the Southern Plains Network collect long-term data on key resources that can indicate overall ecosystem health. When park managers have early warning of potential problems, they have a better chance of dealing with them before they become harder—and more expensive—to fix.

Other field work is conducted by park staff, graduate students, or independent researchers. Because many parks prohibit activities that occur elsewhere, scientists can use the parks as "control" areas for determining the effects of these activities where they do occur. Especially in the American West, national park lands often serve as the best model for what an undisturbed landscape looks like.

Source: NPS DataStore Saved Search 3681 (results presented are a subset). To search for additional information, visit the NPS DataStore .

The diverse habitat within Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site (NHS) supports numerous species of birds with a wide range of habitat needs. Stopover locations, such as the site's riparian habitat, are limited in the prairie and are vital to long- and short-distance migratory birds. Stopover habitat is relatively uncommon in shortgrass prairie ecosystems, such as Sand Creek Massacre NHS, and allows birds to replenish essential reserves for their flight to breeding areas. The combination of prairie and riparian habitats in the site are uncommon in shortgrass prairie ecosystems and are important to numerous bird species, including species of concern. The mix of birds detected in the site suggests the habitat is healthy.

In 2005, 59 bird species were documented in the Sand Creek Massacre NHS during an inventory. Of the species documented, 16 are also listed as species of concern in the shortgrass prairie by the Partners in Flight bird conservation program. Some species in the site require high grass structure, such as the short-eared owl and dickcissel, and others prefer low grass structure and prairie dog burrows, such as the burrowing owl and mountain plover, two Colorado species of special concern species.

The upland habitats also host many species listed by the Partners in Flight. These species include the Cassin's sparrow, dickcissel, horned lark, lark bunting, lark sparrow, northern harrier, Say's phoebe, scaled quail, short-eared owl, Swainson's hawk, western kingbird, and western meadowlark.

The site could also support species such as the ferruginous hawk, lesser prairie chicken, and prairie falcon, though they were not detected in the 2005 survey.

Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site (NHS), located in the Great Plains, is a combination of sandhills, mixed grass prairie, a highly productive shortgrass prairie, and wetlands. The diversity of upland grassland and riparian areas provide a unique and important habitat for birds , especially migrating and sensitive species, and other animals . Wetlands are vital to the shortgrass prairie ecosystem and also contribute significant ecological functions and wildlife habitat.

Historic disturbances and drought affect vegetation composition of the Sand Creek Massacre NHS. These disturbances include livestock grazing, agriculture, and construction of a canal and airport landing strip. Vegetation composition shifts since 1864 may be related to introduced exotic species, changes in fire frequency, agricultural and development disturbances, and drought.

Cottonwood stands lining Sand Creek date to approximately 1865–1885, though it is possible some trees were present during the massacre as seedlings or saplings. The establishment of cottonwoods may be associated with flooding events.

Vegetation is an integral part of the cultural landscape. The Sand Creek Massacre area is significant to several native Plains cultures that have historical and cultural associations with the land and its resources. The Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes traditionally used the area, though it is also associated with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Ute. In 2004, an assessment identified ethnographic resources, or resources meaningful to how a group of people identifies itself.

Several plants, including soapweed yucca and bush morning-glory, were significant to multiple tribes, while others, such as showy milkweed and locoweed, were significant to a single tribe. Use of plants has changed over time; some uses were lost while others were added, including some non-native species.

Continued research in Sand Creek Massacre NHS will expand our knowledge of the resources preserved and protected in this area.

For more in depth information on the plants and other natural resources of Sand Creek Massacre NHS, explore the links under Nature & Science or follow the links on this page.

Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site (NHS) was established in 2007, in part to preserve and protect the cultural landscape of the massacre. Protection of native biological resources, including animals, is integral to preserving the cultural landscape. Sand Creek Massacre NHS is primarily composed of shortgrass prairie and sage shrubland. Sandy Creek, an intermittent stream, crosses the site. Shortgrass prairies support numerous animal and plant species, including federal and state listed endangered, threatened, and candidate species.

Species that have adapted to the specific conditions of their environment can be indicators of a healthy ecosystem. These specialized species are susceptible to changes in water availability, temperature, elevation, geology, and land use. In 2006, 11 special-status species were documented in Sand Creek Massacre NHS, including species listed by the State of Colorado, federal agencies, and conservation organizations. These species are: the burrowing owl, mountain plover, black-tailed prairie dog, Swainson’s hawk, scaled quail, northern harrier, loggerhead shrike, bleached skimmer dragonfly, red-headed woodpecker, white-faced ibis, and northern leopard frog. Lesser prairie chickens historically occupied Sand Creek Massacre NHS, though the species may be locally extinct (extirpated) from the area.

Among the small mammals present in the site, the presence of black-tailed prairie dogs increase the probability of sensitive species occurring at Sand Creek Massacre NHS, as numerous species depend on habitat provided by prairie dogs and their burrows. Prairie dogs in Sand Creek Massacre NHS increases habitat diversity and contribute to grassland ecosystem processes integral to the long-term viability of the existing native plant community and allied species.

Only one species of fish, the Plains killifish, is recorded in the park. It is possible the Arkansas darter, a threatened species listed by the State of Colorado and a candidate for federal protection under the Endangered Species Act, is also present.

For more in depth information on the animals and other natural resources of Sand Creek Massacre NHS, explore the links under Nature & Science or follow the links on this page.