Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site ⓘ

Hopewell Furnace is an example of an Iron Plantation that operated from c.1771 to 1883. Established in a time before company towns and urban steel factories, Iron Plantations were nearly self-sufficient communities built near the natural resources needed to exclusively produce iron. The furnace company and their employees were not famous, unique or even part of a cohesive community; they were skilled, semiskilled and unskilled workers from different social and economic backgrounds. The Ironmaster supervised the business operations and often lived in a large home near the furnace. Iron workers who often worked 12 hour shifts also lived close by while people such as woodcutters and miners lived farther away from the site. When the nation transitioned into an industrial giant, iron furnaces in rural settings were gradually replaced by larger steel factories in urban centers. Technological advances made these small iron furnaces obsolete and ended the agricultural/industrial way of life at iron plantations.

Hopewell Furnace has a very complete collection of ledgers and other records of furnace operations and employee purchases. These records provide insight into the business and the lives of employees and their families throughout much of the 19 th century. During operations, 1771 to 1883, the company clerk kept furnace records meticulously. More than 18,000 pages from seventy-six record books, dating primarily from 1800 to 1876, have been scanned and digitized, allowing for a glimpse into life at Hopewell Furnace. Account books document information including payments to workers, workers’ store purchases, and payments from dealers of more than 3,600 individuals and 300 businesses. Volunteers have been working on a project to make these books searchable by name, book type, and date. If you are interested in assisting with this project, visit volunteer.gov .

What are the Hopewell Furnace Account Books? The company clerk documented furnace operations and financial transactions in a series of record books. The books owned by Hopewell Furnace consist of:

Researchers can browse and search these 19th Century account books through an online portal via NP Gallery . Additional Hopewell Furnace account books are owned by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania ; Berks History Center ; Chester County Historical Society ; and the Pennsylvania State Archives. The Pennsylvania State Archives’ Hopewell Furnace books are in Manuscript Group (MG)-2, MG-258 and MG-259. Researchers will need to make appointments with these institutions in order to access their Hopewell Furnace account books.

Hopewell Furnace has a substantial collection of stove plates cast at the site in the 19th century. They are on display in the Visitor Center, in the Office Store, and the Tenant Houses.

For generations, Hopewell Furnace was the livelihood for many families. Family names such as Care, Houck, Painter, Hart, Lloyd and many others repeatedly appear in the historic furnace records. Read below to learn more about these families and the lives of individual members.

The Care family worked for approximately 60 years at Hopewell Furnace primarily as founders, but also as managers and moulders. The founder managed the physical operation of the furnace, was well paid, and his trade was often passed down through generations of his family. Duties included assessing the smelting process and deciding when the furnace was ready to be tapped. Thomas Care was the first to occupy the position of founder in the family from 1819 to 1835. The position then went to his son Thomas Care Jr., and later Henry Care. Nathan Care was Hopewell’s last founder, occupying the role until the furnace’s last blast ended in 1883.

According to local newspapers of the 1920s and 1930s, Henry F. Care (1846 to 1937) was born at Hopewell Furnace. At the age of 15, he joined Company D, 11th Pennsylvania Calvary during the American Civil War. Allegedly he fought in several battles, was captured, and sent to Andersonville prison. After the war, he returned to Hopewell Furnace and worked as a blacksmith. He then worked at the South Street Mills of the Reading Iron Company and later as a night watchman at Carpenter Steel Company. At the age of 34, he learned to play the violin. Continuing to play it into his 80s, Care was known for his vitality.

The first of the Houck family to work at Hopewell Furnace was Master Collier Henry Houck in 1818. Colliers worked long hours transforming wood into charcoal in the forests surrounding Hopewell. In addition, he worked as a Master Wheelwright and spent winters repairing wooden wagon wheels or chopping wood to sell. Different generations of the Houck family continued to live and work at Hopewell and worshipped at nearby Bethesda Church.

Lafayette Houck (1846 to 1939) worked at Hopewell Furnace as a collier and was still alive when the Federal Government purchased the property in the 1930s. He instructed the National Park Service in methods to produce charcoal and provided them with a first-hand historical account of Hopewell. Today, volunteer colliers continue charcoal making demonstrations annually.

There were two prominent Painter families who worked at Hopewell Furnace. In both cases, they were Pennsylvanian German. The original family name was “Bender” and the German pronunciation sounded like Painter to English speakers. For generations, Painters worked in multiple positions at Hopewell such as founder, fillers, woodcutters, moulders, miners, teamsters and more.

John Painter (c. 1771 to 1827) married Margaret Thomas in 1801 and together they had 9 children. Painter was known as the “founder” because he worked in the position at Hopewell from 1816 to 1818. After Thomas Care obtained the position in 1818, Painter worked as a moulder. After his death in 1827, at the age of 55, his wife and some of his children continued to work at Hopewell Furnace for a short time.

John Painter (1782 to 1851) married Maria [maiden name unknown] and together they had five children. He began working at Hopewell in 1804 as a filler. This was a low paying position and the job duties included filling the furnace with the ingredients needed to produce iron. His son John Painter, Jr. also likely worked as a filler. His son married Margaret Painter, the daughter of John Painter, the founder.

The Hart Family worked at Hopewell Furnace for decades. Starting in 1784, they performed jobs including teamster, moulder, gutterman and casting cleaner. Reportedly, the Hart homestead was located within a couple of miles of Hopewell.

David Hart (1770 to 1840) married Margaret Davis and later Mary Quinn. He had several children and started working at Hopewell in 1816 as a teamster. David and his family had money problems and they were unable to pay his rent between 1832 and 1837. Around this time, his children worked at Hopewell and turned their wages over to their father. Years later, his sons achieved enough financial stability to employ their father in cleaning castings.

The Lloyd family appear frequently in the Furnace’s records. They were a prominent family in the surrounding area and worked as farmers, shoe salesman, woodcutters, stove dealers and more. Today, the Lloyd family is best known for their connection to Bethesda Church.

Thomas Lloyd III (1742-1820) married Margaret Hudson in 1773 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He worked as a famer and owned 134 acres east of Hopewell Furnace. In the early 1780s, Lloyd dedicated a small portion of his land for what became known as “Lloyd’s Church”. A charcoal inscription on a beam inside the church reads “Built in 1782 by T. Lloyd”. The church was non-denominational until 1827, when it became a Baptist congregation. Today, the church is maintained by the National Park Service. Thomas Lloyd III, his wife and some of his children are buried there.

Women at Hopewell Furnace worked in many roles to improve their lives and the general well-being of their families. In addition to childcare and domestic chores, women often supplemented the family income by working various jobs.

Some local women earned money by preparing and selling a variety of food goods such as butter, pickles, and bread. They also profited by selling eggs and chickens as well as making and selling candles and soap.

Single men often payed for a home-cooked meals. These men also paid women to wash and mend their clothes. Women skilled with a needle found work as seamstresses for single men and for residents of the Ironmaster’s Mansion. Homes with spinning wheels provided women with an opportunity to increase the family income through the sale of thread or yarn.

Outside their homes, women performed a variety of jobs at Hopewell Furnace and in the surrounding area. They served as maids and cooks at the Ironmaster’s Mansion and as teachers at the school. Hopewell employed several women as teachers including Susan Brown in the 1830’s and Catherine Rhoads in 1871.

Women and children were hired to perform numerous seasonal duties on farms at Hopewell and in the surrounding area. These tasks included hoeing corn, binding grain, pulling flax, shearing sheep, and picking apples. Usually women were hired during the harvest, but several chores were available all year, including whitewashing fences and buildings and milking cows.

The hills surrounding the furnace provided the wood needed to make charcoal, the fuel used for iron production. Here some women employed as woodcutters earning 27 cents per cord to cut and haul wood. For one 30-year period, 6 women were credited with cutting wood.

Women also have a connection to the trades. Two widows, Margaret Painter and Elizabeth Mervine, were employed to clean castings and prepare the iron for market. This was a strenuous job, tipping stove plates and other iron items while removing sand from the pattern.

Women could also be found at the iron ore mines. During the early 1830s, Mary Beavens, Elizabeth Mauger, and Eliza Painter were paid for mining ore, and Henry Painter collected pay for more than 13 loads of ore sent to the furnace by his daughter.

Furnace records show that from 1837-1846 Jane Clemons was paid as a molder. However, little is known about these women and perhaps they simply accepted wages on behalf of their male relatives.

As the 19th century ended, Hopewell Furnace could no longer operate profitably as more efficient and cheaper methods of making iron were developed and industries moved out of the rural areas and into the cities. This forced the families of Hopewell and the surrounding area to gradually find jobs elsewhere.

Mark Bird (1739 to 1812) was an ironmaster, entrepreneur, and supporter of the American Revolution. Mark’s father, William Bird, was a success in Pennsylvania’s early iron industry. After William’s death in 1761, Mark assumed control of his father’s assets and built additional ironworks, including Hopewell Furnace around 1771.

During the American Revolution, Bird served as a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly, Lieutenant Colonel of the Second Battalion of the Berks County Militia, Chairman of the General Committee of Berks County, and Deputy Quartermaster General. Bird personally bought supplies for soldiers including uniforms, tents and provisions. It is unknown if Hopewell Furnace was directly involved in producing weapons and ammunition, but it is believed some of Bird’s ironworks constructed cannon and shot for continental frigates. Nevertheless, Bird overextended himself during the war and had a series of bad business dealings. Hopewell Furnace was sold in a sheriff’s sale in 1788, and Bird fled to North Carolina to avoid debtors. He died there in 1812.

1769 March 29, Mark Bird and James Wilson purchase land that will later become Hopewell Furnace

1785 Mark Bird and James Wilson secure a loan from John Nixon for the 8,000-acre plantation

1788 Hopewell Furnace plantation sold at auction to Cadwallader Morris (1/3 share) and James Old (2/3/ share)

1790 Cadwallader Morris sells 1/3 share of Hopewell Furnace to his brother Benjamin Morris

1795 James Wilson leases plantation to John Lewis Barde, John Rene Barde and Paul Henry Mallet Provost

1796 James Wilson sells Birdsborough portion to John Lewis Barde. James Old reacquires Hopewell Furnace portion.

1798 Daniel Buckley and Matthew Brooke enter into a lease agreement for Birdsborough Estate

1800 Daniel Buckley and his brothers-in-law Thomas and Matthew Brooke purchase Hopewell Furnace

1816 Clement Brooke, son of Thomas Brooke, becomes Ironmaster of Hopewell Furnace. Firm reorganized as Daniel Buckley and Company

1827 Daniel Buckley dies. Company renamed Buckley and Brooke. Daniel Buckley son’s Clement, George Washington and Matthew Brooke Buckley became heirs to half the company

1830 Matthew Brooke Buckley purchased Clement’s and George’s shares in Hopewell. Thomas Brooke dies leaving his half share of Hopewell to his children Charles and Clement Brooke

1831 The firm was reorganized under the name Clement Brooke and Company. Each of the three partners held equal shares after Matthew Brooke Buckley sold 1/3 of his share to the Brooke brothers

1849 Dr. Charles Clingan, Clement Brooke’s son-in-law, took over management of the furnace

1852 Company reorganized again when a rift developed between Clement Brooke and Charles Brooke

1853 Charles Brooke was bought out of the partnership and a new anthracite furnace was built, Matthew Brooke Buckley dies and bequeaths his half share to his son Edward S. Buckley and wife Mary Swift

1861 Although retired, Clement Brooke remained partner until his death in 1861. Upon his death his half share was transferred to his daughter Maria T. Clingan. The firm’s name was changed to the Clingan and Buckley Company

1894 Maria T. Clingan traded property in Philadelphia for Edward S. Buckley’s share in Hopewell Furnace

1895 Maria T. Clingan transfers Edward S. Buckley’s half share to her children Charles B. Clingan, Alan Hunter Clingan and A. Louise Clingan Brooke

1905 Alan Hunter Clingan dies. A. Louise Clingan Brooke becomes the sole proprietor when she received her brother’s share and purchased Charles Clingan’s share from his children

1935 After more than 150 years as an active furnace, the Hopewell compound totaling more than four thousand acres was sold to the federal government

1938 The furnace complex and 213 acres were designated Hopewell Village National Historic Site

On March 4, 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was inaugurated as the 32nd President of the United States amidst the economic and social hardships of the Great Depression. Roosevelt combatted these hardships with a series of reforms, programs, and public works projects collectively known as the New Deal. These initiatives included policies to improve the lives of young males by employing them in conservation projects across the country. On April 5, 1933, Roosevelt signed an executive order to create the Emergency Conservation Work Program (ECW). Renamed the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in 1937, enrollees worked to rehabilitate land at farms, forests, and parks. Starting in 1934, CCC Camp SP-7 and SP-17 developed French Creek Recreational Demonstration Area in southeastern Pennsylvania. This project led the National Park Service (NPS) to examine the historical significance of Hopewell Furnace. At the direction of the Federal government, the CCC began the process of reworking Hopewell into one of the earliest National Historic Sites administered by the NPS. After the CCC’s disbandment in 1942, the NPS continued to restore and reconstruct buildings. The legacy of the CCC, however, remains evident in the structures, trails, and roads of Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site and French Creek State Park.

In 1883, after 112 years of iron production, the management at Hopewell Furnace permanently closed their business. Founded around 1771, Hopewell’s cold-blast furnace technology became obsolete by the late-nineteenth century. The mass production of steel was made possible with technological innovations such as the Bessemer process. As a result, iron furnaces in rural locations were replaced by steel factories in urban centers. This gradual transition between old and new methods of production closed the chapter on iron plantations in industrial history.

In the years after Hopewell’s closure, the property and buildings remained in the family of successful ironmaster, Clement Brooke. The Brooke family owned the property for 135 years. After iron production ceased, the land was used for farming, charcoal making, and dairy production. By the 1930s, however, most of the buildings were in a state of disrepair. In addition, the Great Depression dealt a financial blow to the Brooke family. The condition of their property and financial problems gave them incentive to sell some of their assets.

At the time of the Brooke family’s financial troubles, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration was searching for land to purchase and restore into Recreational Demonstration Areas (RDA). The Federal government sought land they deemed unproductive. For example, the government purchased land that was damaged by over-cutting, mining, erosion, fires, and/or flood. The overall condition of the Brooke’s property made the land a prime candidate for an RDA. For more than 112 years, the land surrounding Hopewell Furnace was mined for iron ore and limestone. In addition, most of the soil was considered poor and the forests had been repeatedly cut for charcoal production. In August 1935, the Brooke family sold more than 4,200 acres to the Federal government. Additional purchases were made from neighboring landowners making the total amount of acquired land 6,200 acres.

When the Federal government was purchasing property for RDAs, the National Park Service was expanding its mission to include development and management of historic sites. In 1930, George Washington Birthplace National Monument and Colonial National Monument were admitted into the NPS. Adding to this expansion, the War Department transferred over administration of their monuments, military parks, and national cemeteries. By 1935, the Historic Sites Act gave the NPS authority to develop additional national historic sites. Altogether, these administrative changes enabled NPS historians to consider Hopewell Furnace for inclusion in the National Park Service at the precise time the CCC was building French Recreational Demonstration Area.

The CCC was informally known as “Roosevelt’s Tree Army”. Indeed, CCC camps were structured like a military organization. In general, camps were comprised of 200 men. The government sought unmarried young males (ages 18-25) who lived in cities and had limited skills. In addition, veterans and skilled local workers were eligible to enroll. Once on the payroll, enrollees were urged to send funds home to their families.

The typical morning started at 6am with the sound of reveille. The workday began at 8am and ended at 4pm. This routine took place five to six days per week depending on scheduling and circumstance. Dinner was at 5pm and workers were expected to wear a dress uniform. After the workday, enrollees could take education or vocational classes. Camps even had a site-specific newspaper. At Hopewell, the paper was called Hopewell Howl . Enrollees were instructed to be in bed by 10pm and a bed check was completed at 11pm every night.

Managing the camp was a shared responsibility. An Army camp commander administered the physical camp. The park superintendent coordinated work assignments and schedules. Also present were a foreman, supervisors of various trades, historians, and archeologists. The workers would be tasked with constructing their barracks, mess hall, library, bath house, latrines, officers’ quarters, and utility buildings. Some of these buildings are still in existence.

The first workers of Company 2213 arrived on December 10, 1934. The purchasing deal between the Federal government and the Brooke Family was not finished until 1935, but preliminary work could move forward. Camps were designated with the abbreviation “SP” for state park. Company 2213 was named SP-7 and later called NP-4 when Hopewell became a National Park. On July 16, 1935, Company 3301 moved to the French Creek Recreational Demonstration Area and was named Camp SP-17. The ranks of these camps included World War I veterans and skilled workers from the local area.

Hopewell Furnace was founded by wealthy Pennsylvanian entrepreneur, Mark Bird. Bird lost most of his wealth during the American Revolution. During the war, Bird had supplied cannons and shot to continental frigates. Nevertheless, he stretched his resources beyond his means. Bird fled Pennsylvania after the war to avoid debtors. The CCC enrollees knew about the connection of Hopewell Furnace and the American Revolution. In an issue of Hopewell Howl on June 29, 1936, the reporter writes:

“One of the most important jobs which the CCC has under way in Pennsylvania is the development of the French Creek recreational demonstration area. This project involves the restoration of Hopewell, an iron making village which flourished 150 years ago. Tho many of the original buildings in the village have disappeared, there are still standing the old furnace, a pyramid of cut stone, the manor house, blacksmith shop and several dwellings”.

The history of Hopewell interested at least some of the CCC members. Nevertheless, the profession of historic preservation was still in its infancy. Mistakes were made with early work including the regrading of ground, removal of artifacts from original buildings, and the use of slag piles for building materials. In addition, the CCC adapted the Office/Store for their headquarters and the Blacksmith Shop for a utility building. Some of the historic records stored in the Office/Store were even destroyed by the CCC before the National Park Service intervened and stop further destruction.

NPS historians also misinterpreted the historic function of Hopewell by labeling it an iron making village. Throughout Hopewell’s operation, the management of the furnace company never referred to their business as a village. In actuality, the furnace was an industrial site located in a rural setting with multiple buildings to support employees and the business. In the 1930s, the historian’s interpretation might have stemmed from their enthusiasm for popular historic villages at the time such as Williamsburg, Virginia [Stanton, 86].

Despite a series of bad decisions, CCC workers and NPS historians accomplished important work. Research assistant, Jackson Kemper, conducted historical research and interviewed residents of the area. Documents were preserved and artifacts were put aside in a predetermined room in the Ironmaster’s Mansion. In addition, Kemper demonstrated the process of charcoal making with collier, Lafayette Houck. Workers stabilized structures such as the furnace stack. Route 345 was also constructed by the CCC and this greatly improved visitor access to the site. Lastly, the enrollees briefly assisted the NPS with archeological digs and the CCC’s architect prepared plans to restore the bake ovens. When Hopewell Furnace was designated as a historic site, CCC workers even acted as some of the first tour guides. Reportedly, the workers studied hard before the tours. In the Hopewell Howl , they lamented how difficult it was to get a college education in six months.

The original intention of the federal government was to create French Creek Recreational Demonstration Area. From the worker’s initial perspective, the goal of the projects was to create access for recreational use. Projects included latrines, trails, water fountains, parking lots, and camping areas. Construction of a dam in French Creek led to what is known as Hopewell Lake. In the present-day boundaries of the NPS, the CCC constructed Baptism Creek Picnic Area. In an article from the Hopewell Howl on August 8, 1936, the writer informs the reader of the picnic grounds status:

“It is located in the National Hopewell Park area and is the first project to be opened for the use of the public. Sixty tables, numerous drinking fountains with water tapped from springs, a half a dozen stone fireplaces with plenty of wood for cooking, a half dozen bridges crossing the creek and a shelter to hold a hundred or more adds to the completeness of this new recreation grounds”.

The writer is proud of the workers' accomplishments. Nevertheless, the number of workers waned over the years. In 1937, there were 121 people in Camp SP-7 and 138 in Camp SP-7/NP4. Camp SP-17 would shut down because of budget cuts in June of 1938. By 1941, there were only 96 CCC workers in the area. Ranks of enrollees were supplemented by workers from the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Works Progress Administration, and Works Projects Administration.

When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Congress ended the CCC program. Camp SP-7/NP-4 was scheduled to leave in April, but some of the men remained to host sailors from the British battleship HMS Nelson. The camp area around Hopewell and French Creek continued to be used by the Navy throughout the war. In 1946, French Creek State Park was created when the Federal government gave most of the land and buildings in the area to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The historic industrial site and surrounding area, however, was retained by the National Park Service. From 1934 to 1942, CCC projects made a lasting impact at Hopewell Furnace and the surrounding area. Decades after the CCC was disbanded, visitors who walk the trails may still see an old structure or water fountain in a seemingly random place. Since the 1930s, conservation methods have improved. The CCC’s legacy, however, persists in the park’s trails, roads, and structures.

Hopewell Goes to War Once fighting began, Mark Bird served as both a Militia Colonel and as a Deputy Quartermaster General. As the latter, he helped obtain badly needed supplies for George Washington's forces both before and during their stay at Valley Forge. However, his most important contribution to the war effort was as ironmaster of Hopewell Furnace. From 1775 to early 1778 (when France entered the war against Great Britain) the Americans had to look primarily to furnaces like Hopewell for iron cannon, shot and shell. Yet none of these sites had ever before cast munitions. In spite of the difficulties of "learning by doing," the iron industry met the challenge. Hopewell was thought to produce 115 big guns for the Continental Navy, some of which were used aboard the frigates Randolph and Delaware. Even more importantly, Hopewell may have provided shot and shell to the Continental Army and Navy throughout the war, including 10- inch mortar shells used to help win the final major battle at Yorktown.

The War Comes Too Close for Comfort At the end of the summer of 1777, a British army invaded Pennsylvania from the upper Chesapeake Bay. On September 11, 1777, these British troops defeated but did not destroy Washington's army at the Battle of Brandywine. The British commander then played upon Washington's fear for the munitions producing furnaces of Warwick, Reading and Hopewell by moving his forces through what are now Chester and Montgomery Counties so as to threaten the furnaces as well as the supply depot in Reading. Outmaneuvering the Continentals the British were able to take Philadelphia by the end of the month without having to fight another major battle. During this time Washington's main force came within three miles of Hopewell. Troopers of the 4 th Continental Dragoons visited the furnaces along French Creek to prevent munitions from falling into British hands. Among those serving in this unit was Captain Craig, future husband of Mark Bird's oldest daughter, Charlotte. It was also during this time, according to tradition, that Hopewell workers buried several "great guns" near the furnace to save them from possible capture by the Redcoats. In the end, however, Hopewell was spared any visit by the King's troops.

The Price of Victory By early 1783 the war was over, but victory was to have a heavy price for Hopewell Furnace. Mark Bird was unable to collect money due him from the now bankrupt Continental Congress. In spite of this, like a number of other ironmasters, Mark Bird borrowed heavily to invest in new iron making ventures. When the resurgent British iron industry flooded the unprotected American market with cheap goods, Bird and his partners lost everything. Thus, confidence in the new nation's future led to the ruin of many of those responsible for its independence.

Pennell, Joseph, Artist. Bethlehem Steel Works. Bethlehem Pennsylvania, 1881. May. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/97517130/

The Industrial Revolution refers to the period between 1760 and 1840 that changed manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States. Products formally made by hand were now being produced in mass quantities with new machines and techniques. These changes transformed rural and agricultural societies into urban and industrialized societies. Hopewell Furnace, an early iron making business, tried to adapt with the new methods of production, but simply could not keep up with the changing industry.

The furnace company at Hopewell Furnace largely utilized a cold blast furnace to produce iron from c.1771 to 1883. This method of iron production required the use of charcoal to fuel the furnace, which was labor intensive and demanded an abundant supply of wood. During the Industrial Revolution, many in the iron industry changed their fuel source from charcoal to coke and coal. Coke and coal were more abundant and less labor intensive to obtain. Beginning in 1853, Hopewell briefly used an anthracite coal furnace. In less than 4 years, however, the furnace company reverted to its cold blast furnace because of the high cost in transporting coal.

Innovations in steam power provided a reliable and efficient means of power. Before the creation of the steam engine, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. Hopewell Furnace, for example, used a water wheel that was dependent on favorable weather conditions to work efficiently. In the late-19th century, a boiler was installed to run a steam engine as an auxiliary power for Hopewell’s water wheel. In 1882, furnace management added an ore roaster to remove the impurities from the iron ore to improve the quality of the iron. This was one of the last innovations to be adopted at Hopewell Furnace. The management even hesitated to buy it for fear that the business would soon close and their purchase would be wasted.

Historians believe the Second Industrial Revolution began in the late-19th century and early-20th century. This revolution ushered in a new period of standardization and industrialization. In this time, the iron industry was changed with innovations such as the Bessemer Process. This process made the mass production of steel possible. Technological innovations and changes in the market rendered Hopewell Furnace obsolete and unprofitable, causing the operation to permanently close in 1883.

Charcoal is one of the three resources that go into making iron; the other two are iron ore and a flux, usually limestone. Of the three, it is the only renewable resource, but also the most expensive one to acquire. It cannot simply be mined, but must be created through a time-consuming, delicate process. An immense amount of charcoal was required to keep a furnace the size of Hopewell’s running. When it was “in blast,” the furnace would consume 800 bushels of charcoal per day. Fueling the Furnace Using charcoal to make iron is a process that came to the colonies from England. In the 1770s, when Hopewell Furnace first began making iron, charcoal was the only fuel available. The 19th century, however, brought experiments in the process through the use of hard anthracite coal in place of the softer charcoal. In 1837 iron furnaces were successful in producing iron using anthracite coal with the use of a hot air blast. Though anthracite coal was briefly tried at Hopewell, it never caught on as well here as it did in other places due to the expense of hauling the coal to Hopewell. The furnace hung on as a charcoal furnace for over four decades after most of the iron industry shifted from charcoal to anthracite coal, but in 1883 Hopewell Furnace “blew out” for the final time, losing in business to the cheaper anthracite furnaces.

The Rise of Axes and the Smell of Charcoal Throughout the furnace’s history, woodcutters were the largest group of furnace employees. Of the nearly 250 workers on the payroll from 1835 to 1837, more than 100 were wood- cutters. Since most woodcutting was done in the winter, many of them were part-time employees; neighboring farmers with time on their hands, unemployed boys, and even women hoping to earn a few dollars. Using only axes, woodcutters averaged two cords per day. While this may appear to be a large quantity of wood, when converted to charcoal this was only enough to keep the furnace operating for about 2 1⁄2 hours. The average charcoal hearth consumed 30 cords of wood to produce around 1100 bushels of charcoal, enough to keep the furnace operating for 1 1⁄2 days. The annual requirement for charcoal at Hopewell consumed 5000 to 6000 cords of wood, or more than 200 acres of woodlands each year. Despite popular myths, charcoal making did not lead to the deforestation of the area. The best kind of wood for making charcoal was hardwood trees that were 20-25 years old. A furnace with about 6,000 acres of forest could create a system in which woodcutters would cut what they needed from a specific area, then take measures to prevent livestock from eating the new “shoots,” and 20 years later, woodcutters would work their way back around to this area and cut again.

Making Chacoal Making charcoal requires constant attention to the charcoal pits, or hearths, which averaged in size from 30-40 feet in diameter. For this purpose a collier would live in a makeshift hut with one or two helpers who would tend up to 8 or 9 pits at one time. There can be no break in the vigilant watching of the pits from the moment they are lit until the moment the teamster drives away with the final load of charcoal. The process includes numerous steps:

An 18-foot green pole of wood, called a “fagan” is driven into the ground at the center of the hearth.

Wood is added around this chimney in three layered tiers that spread out around the chimney to the edge of the hearth. The bottom tier is referred to as the “foot”, followed by the “waist,” and then the “head” at the top.

The pit is carefully monitored for air holes in the surface, which were filled by “jumping the pit,” or stepping around, finding soft spots, and adjusting the wood to fill them in. Also, vents can be made on purpose to draw the fire in certain directions to be sure that all of the wood is turned into charcoal.

In about 10 days to 2 weeks, the pit “comes to foot” meaning that the wood has been turned into charcoal.

The pit is then raked out slowly and carefully starting at the foot in the place where the dust is driest.

The charcoal that is separated from the pit is carefully watched until all signs of fire have gone out of it.

Pieces of wood that failed to be turned into charcoal were placed in smaller pits and burned into charcoal over the course of a few days. This is called “foxing the brands.”

Keeping the Tradition Alive To keep the charcoal-making process alive at Hopewell, a program was put together in 1936 during which 82-year-old Lafayette Houck, one of Hopewell’s last colliers, and his son, William, gave a living demonstration of the life of a collier. To this day we continue to have charcoal-making demonstrations, which produce charcoal using traditional methods with the support of numerous dedicated volunteers.

An ancient alchemy sustained Hopewell Furnace: transforming mineral into metal. Since 4,000 years ago, when humans learned how to free iron from ore, the basic process has not changed. Iron oxide is heated in an intense flame fed by carbon fuel. Oxygen in the ore combines with carbon monoxide released from the fuel and is expelled as CO 2 . What is left is iron. The blast furnace’s height lets the rising gases preheat the ore and gives the iron more distance to descend as it softens – so it absorbs more carbon from the fuel. Because iron’s melting point falls as its carbon content rises, the iron becomes fully molten. A calcium-based “flux,” usually limestone, is added. The flux combines with impurities in the ore and forms slag.

The basic ingredients of iron making – iron ore, limestone, and carbon fuel – are some of the most common on Earth, but are not found everywhere. Early furnaces were built where these materials were available. Iron is usually found in combination in the form of hematite, the magnetite used at Hopewell, or other iron ores . Most iron ore was dug in small surface mines. Any substance that contained calcium, like seashells, could be used as a flux, but for most furnaces, limestone was cheap and abundant. American forests were so vast – and bringing in coal so expensive before railroads were built – that early iron plantations like Hopewell made their own fuel. They slowly burned and carefully built piles of wood to make charcoal , an almost purely carbon fuel that burns with intense heat. The great demand for charcoal meant that early furnaces were sited on woodlands. One other ingredient was needed: air. It was directed into the hearth under pressure by the water-powered blast machinery, raising the fire in the furnace to smelting temperature (around 3000°F).

Iron plantation life revolved around the always-running, roaring furnace. It shut down usually once a year – to refurbish its inner walls and hearth. While it was in “in blast,” its cycles of filling and tapping set life’s rhythm at Hopewell. It demanded close attention. Workers constantly fed it, watched its flame, and listened to the sound of its blast. For workers around the furnace, it was a hot, hard job requiring protective shoes and aprons. Every half-hour fillers dumped into the tunnel head 400 to 500 pounds of iron ore, 30 to 40 pounds of limestone, and 15 bushels of charcoal. With no gauge, the founder used his practiced eye to judge the shape and color of the flame from the chimney and the color and consistency of molten iron. This told whether the temperature was right and the proportions of ingredients correct. In temperatures that could reach 3,000°F, the molten iron flowed down toward the hearth, to be tapped when the founder judged it ready. At Hopewell, he generally tapped the furnace every 12 hours, at 6 am and 6 pm. After the guttermen drew off the slag, the iron could be tapped in two ways. It could flow directly into the “pig bed” in the cast house floor (it looked like a litter of nursing pigs), where it hardened into pig iron ready for market. Or it could be tapped into large ladles, the cast in molds. This process was repeated twice daily as long as the furnace was in blast.

To make the most money from molten iron you would cast finished products at the furnace. Moulders cast several items: plowshares, pots, sash and scale weights, cannon, and shot. But as iron stoves grew more common in 1800s homes, Hopewell built its operation on stove plates. Cast products made profits, but the age also demanded goods that the furnace’s brittle high-carbon iron was not suitable for. The tough, malleable wrought iron needed for plow moldboards, nails, and horseshoes had to be obtained through an indirect process not in place at Hopewell. The molten iron was cast into pig iron bars shipped elsewhere for refining. At the finery forge, the iron was remelted and much of its carbon was oxidized, raising the melting point. The iron partially solidified into a pasty lump. The lump was then beaten to drive out the slag and align the fibers, producing wrought iron. More processing converted the iron into the bars and rods used by blacksmiths. A lengthier process was used to convert iron into steel. Hopewell’s owners often held interests in local forges and mills.

In 1962 and 1963, archeologist Leland Abel, excavated the ground around the furnace stack at Hopewell Furnace. The Cast House had long since deteriorated away from existence and he sought to learn more about the past structure. From c. 1771 to 1883, generations of laborers worked inside a Cast House at Hopewell Furnace making products such as cast iron stoves, tools, and pig iron bars. By the early 1960s, Abel found remnants of red-clay tiles from the roof, foundations, and stone walls of various sizes. Based on these discoveries, he determined the early Cast House was originally of a smaller size and later enlarged over the years. Abel’s work, as well as the work of architects, historians, archeologists, and park staff, contributed to the reconstruction of the Cast House to its 1840 appearance in 1964 and 1965.

The earliest known photograph of the Cast House was taken on October 10, 1887. Early photographs were studied, and reports were prepared by Superintendent Joseph R. Prentice, Superintendent Benjamin Zerbey, Historian Earl J. Heydinger and Architect Norman M. Souder. Souder sketched how the Cast House may have looked based on their combined research. Some details may not be accurate, but it provides a general impression of how the Cast House’s appearance changed over time. This sketch shows the Cast House as it may have looked in the year 1800.

Souder then sketched how the Cast House may have looked in the year 1840. This Cast House is enlarged, and a belfry and east annex were added. The additions and expansion may be attributed to Hopewell’s most profitable time in the 1830s and the 1840s. At this time, Hopewell Furnace primarily made cast iron stoves.

Souder’s final sketch depicts the Cast House as it may have looked in 1880. This drawing is primarily based on the 1887 photograph. According to an interview from a past employee, Harker Long, the gable-roofed structure is thought to be a carpenter shop. From 1844 to 1883, Hopewell Furnace primarily made pig iron bars.

The Cast House was restored as it may have looked in 1840, Hopewell’s most profitable time. Amish carpenters were hired under the direction of the National Park Service to construct the structure. The framing was done with white oak, red oak and poplar pole rafters from Elverson, PA. The red clay tiles were hand-made and manufactured by Ludowici-Celadon Company of New York. The reconstructed Cast House was completed in 1965. Today, the Cast House stands as a place of learning, exploration and enjoyment. Generations of visitors fondly remember attending demonstrations, interpretive programs and experiencing the waterwheel located inside the building.

Sheep have been raised primarily for the weaver rather than for the butcher, and the art of spinning the fiber into yarn is an age-old process. The colonists who came to America brought sheep with them or requested they be sent from Europe so that they could make wool clothing necessary to survive the cold harsh winters of North America. The most important source of high-grade wool is the Merino sheep. The Spanish later improved upon the Merino, developed by the Romans through cross breeding. In 1802 the first Merinos were introduced into New England by Col. Humphreys, the Minister to Paris. By 1818, Merinos had become established at Hopewell Furnace as well. The “Merino Craze” of 1830 sent the price of fine wool soaring to over a dollar a pound, which ushered in a brief period of speculative sheep husbandry. Merinos have always been noted for their fine and beautiful wool, as are their descendants, the Merinos, Rambouillets, and Debouillets of today. The species is also hardy, gregarious, and long-lived. The Merino breed has contributed more to the development of the present day sheep industry than any other.

Sheep are usually shorn in the spring of the year. The removal of wool is a painstaking process. Even though it may look easy, care must be taken not to cut the sheep with the shears while trying to remove the fleece in a single piece. To accomplish this, the sheep must be held securely in place. In the 1800s sheep were shorn using a pair of hand shears, but today, most shearers use electric clippers. After the fleece is completely removed, the belly and leg wool, a poorer grade, is set aside from the rest. The remainder of the fleece is then folded up and tied with paper twine to be stored in a cool dry place for later processing.

The wool was sorted according to grade from coarse to fine. The coarser grades were used for rough goods such as horse blankets and carpeting. The finest of fibers were saved for clothing and household fabrics. Removing the lanolin and dirt from the wool is known as scouring. The typical scouring mixture used during the 1800s was scalding water and urine. Today, a mixture of hot water and washing soda and/or soap is used. A small amount of the raw fleece was immersed and left in the water anywhere from 30 minutes to overnight depending on how dirty the wool was. When the wool looked clean, it was gently lifted from the water and allowed to drain. The wool was then placed in clean water to rinse. The rinse water was changed several times before the wool was rinsed clean. After the final rinse, the wool was placed on racks outdoors in the shade and allowed to dry completely. Any remaining burrs and matted lumps were then picked from the wool. Carding and combing the wool is done to disentangle and align the fibers. Wooden hand cards with leather faces covered with metal hooks were used to pull the fibers straight. Reversing the cards and rolling the wool off the hooks removed the wool. The roll or “rolag” of wool was the full width of the card and was now ready to be spun. Combing the wool fibers was an alternative to carding. Wooden handled combs with two rows of long metal teeth were used. The short fibers were removed with the heated combs. The “sliver”, a quantity of long fibers combed perfectly straight, was spun into worsted yarn.

Spin Fibers into Yarn Spinning the fibers into yarn was a task entrusted to the young girls and women of early America. Few farm houses lacked some type of spinning device. Whether it was a hand spindle, a walking wheel, or a Saxony wheel, the idea was the same. Spinning twisted the wool together making the strands straight and elongating the fibers into a narrow strand of desired thickness. The hand spindle, a stick with a weight that spins like a top, was one of the earliest devices used for spinning. As the spindle revolves, the yarn is twisted and wound around the stick. To use a walking wheel, the spinner held a “rolag” or “sliver” in the left hand and slowly released the fibers while spinning the wheel with the right hand. The revolutions of the spindle twisted the fiber into yarn. The Saxony wheel, or treadle wheel, is powered by pumping a treadle that turns the wheel, spinning and twisting the fibers into yarn. The yarn, after being spun, would be woven, knitted or crocheted into garments to clothe the ironworkers.

A large portion of Hopewell’s work force was made up of woodcutters. From 1835 to 1837, 112 out of 213 employees on the payroll cut wood for charcoal making.

Colliers produced charcoal by charring it in pits under carefully controlled conditions. During coaling, the master collier and his helpers lived in primitive huts near the pits. Charcoal making is still demonstrated at Hopewell Furnace annually.

Early miners worked in surface pits, usually in two-man teams. Some were employed by a furnace and others developed mining partnerships and sold ore at contracted prices. Miners were a group of skilled laborers who supplied Hopewell Furnace with the iron ore it needed to make its many products. They were mostly men and young boys. However, there are records that show that women may have worked at the mines as well. The miners played a key role making sure that the furnace was supplied with enough ore on a daily basis. Learn more about the job of a miner at Hopewell Furnace.

Furnaces employed their own teamsters or contracted with men who owned teams and wagons. A trip to Philadelphia, for which the furnace paid the teamster’s expenses required several days.

The success of an ironmaking operation depended on the experience, skill, and judgement of the founder, whose job it was to keep the furnace running at peak efficiency. A founder maintained the proper smelting temperature and determined when the iron was ready to tap. A poor product brought a lower wage and reduced the furnace company’s revenue. A poor founder was quickly dismissed.

Keeping the furnace charged was one of the hardest and hottest tasks in ironmaking. At the direction of the founder, the fillers damped barrows and carts of charcoal, ore, and limestone into the “tunnel head.” Before scales were used, the founder depended on the fillers to approximate the amount of each ingredient. Fillers endured the flame, smoke, and cinders at the tunnel head and work in all-weather but were paid little more than common laborers.

Before the iron was tapped, the gutterman prepared the sand bed on the cast house floor by raking it and digging channels into which the iron flowed. They stacked the hardened bars outside the cast house for transport. Gutterman, often boys, also hauled away the cooling “cinder” to the slag heap.

The casting of iron products was an exacting craft, and the moulders who practiced it were among the highest paid of ironworkers. It took years to gain the necessary skills, and the craft was often passed from father to son. Moulding techniques are still demonstrated at Hopewell Furnace annually.

Blacksmiths were valued citizens known for the utility, quality, and beauty of their work. Equipped with a hand-powered bellows, hearth, anvil, hammers, tongs, punches, chisels, and forms, a blacksmith turned out horseshoes, nails, weapons, wagon tires, cooking utensils, and agricultural implements. He was also a general repairman who restored and re-edged tools and machinery and shod horses, mules and oxen. Today, volunteer blacksmiths periodically demonstrate their craft at Hopewell Furnace.

Clerks kept books and acted as paymaster. He also managed the company store, ordering supplies for the village and charging workers’ purchases against their wages. He was trusted with setting proprieties for filling orders and could extend credit. He also managed the furnace in the ironmaster’s absence. The holders of this prestigious job often lived in the home of the ironmaster, a position that an enterprising clerk had a good chance of attaining.

A good ironmaster was a capitalist, technician, market analyst, personnel director, bill collector, purchasing agent, and transportation expert. Many learned the business by working their way up the ladder at an ironworks. Others, such as Mark Bird, inherited the business and their position from their father.

Hopewell Furnace showcases an early American industrial landscape and the essential role of industrialization in the growth of the early United States. Operating from 1771-1883, Hopewell and other “iron plantations” laid the foundation for the transformation of the United States into an industrial giant . The primary story emphasis of Hopewell is on the first half of the 19 th century – the era of its greatest prosperity. The decline of Hopewell, which ended with its final blast in 1883, began in 1844 – the end of stove casting at the furnace. The inevitable end of the charcoal furnace at Hopewell, and other charcoal furnace sites, was postponed by the Civil War and the growth of railroads that created a greater demand for iron. The era of charcoal iron plantation depends upon a combination of agriculture and industry. The voracious consumption of fuel – an acre of hardwood trees a day to keep the furnace operating – limited location of the furnace to the proximity of extensive forests. Although the forest and farm offered employment to many workers, their ultimate prosperity depended upon the economy of the furnace. The need for an expanding labor force brought about employment and, to a large degree, equality for women, children, and people of color. Today, the park's 848 acres and historic structures illustrate the business, technology and lifestyle of our growing nation. The history of Hopewell Furnace spans these two centuries -- from its untouched natural state as a part of the great eastern American forests -- to its rebirth as a recreational and cultural history area. In between are the stories of industrial development, technology, community, craftsmanship, and natural resources that together changed America.